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PHILIPPINE     EDUCATION     SERIES 

ELEMENTS   OF 

PHILIPPINE 
AGRICULTURE 


\\y 


EDWIX   HIXGHAM  COPHLAXI).  Ph.D. 

.SUI'ERINTKNDKNT   OF   TIIK    INSII.AR    AlIKirriniKAI. 
SCHOOL   OK    TIIK    I'lllLllTINK    ISl^VNlJS 


o 


4631)1 

YONKKKS ON-mnsoN.   NI.W   YORK 

WORLD     BO  ( )  K    C  O M  P  A  N  Y 

AND    MANILA 
I9IO 


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54-T 

PREFACE 

The  general  principles  and  a  large  part  of  the  facts  to  be  taught 
in  most  subjects  in  the  elementary  schools  are  the  same  in  every  land. 
"^  Some  subjects  might  be  taught  in  the  Philippine  Islands  from  Ameri- 
^can  texts,  except  as  they  gain  in  presentation  by  the  use  of  local 
^  examples  and  illustrations.     With  agriculture  the  case  is  very  differ- 
ent.    The  subjects  to  be  studied  are  almost  all  different  from  those 
in  the  United  States;  the  climate  is  different,  the  economic  conditions 
are  different.     A  useful  text-book  must  be  adapted  to  all  of  these 
.    differences. 

'         Our  text-books  are  the  products  of  evolution,  those  in  use  to-day 
fj  having  the  good  features  but,  as  far  as  can  be  helped,  not  the  weak- 
nesses of  their  predecessors.     The   teaching  of  agriculture   in  any 
large  number  of  schools  is  so  recent  that  this  selection  has  not  yet 
gone  far.     Even  in  temperate  countries,  there  has  not  yet  been  time 
,  for  general  experience  to  decide  what  material,  from  the  almost  un- 
V)  limited    amount   available,    should   be   chosen    for   school    use ;    the 
methods  of  presenting  it  are  as  diverse  as  the  limited  number  of  bcx)ks 
^l^ermits,  and  a  logical  relation  of  the  material  seems  as  yet  to  have 
been  less  considered  by  most  authors  than  the  exercise  of  the  eyes 
>)  and  hands  and  the  teaching  of  mere  facts. 

In  a  subject  in  which  texts  are  still  so  undeveloped,  and  in  the  first 
attempt  in  a  tropical  field,'  it  is  inevitable  that  this  bcx)k  will  be  far 
from  what  many  will  think  it  should  be.  lender  the  circumstances, 
I  trust  that  their  criticisms  will  be  constructive,  and  that  they  will 
be  sent  to  the  author. 

There  is  nothing  unreasonable  in  good  agriculture,  and  the  fact  that 
a  text  on  the  subject  must  be  practical  does  not  involve  its  being  dis- 
connected or  illogical.  I  believe  that  whatever  success  has  rewarded 
my  effort  to  present  this  subject  logically  increases,  instead  of  detract- 

>  Lyon's  interesting  reader  is  not,  .-ind  is  not  called,  a  textbook  of  agriculture. 

ill 


iv  PREFACE 

ing  from,  its  practical  value  ;  for  every  student  is  most  certain  to 
remember,  and  most  likely  to  practice,  the  things  he  really  under- 
stands. There  are,  of  course,  practical  limits  to  explanations ;  I 
have  had  to  use  my  own  judgment  as  to  where  these  limits  are 
reached. 

My  work  on  this  little  book  has  covered  more  than  two  years.  It 
was  at  first  proposed  that  a  set  of  leaflets  on  Philippine  agriculture 
be  written,  and  Mr.  Edgar  M.  Ledyard  was  associated  with  me  in  their 
preparation.  Later,  when  it  was  decided  that  a  book,  rather  than 
a  set  of  leaflets,  was  needed,  a  more  homogeneous  treatment  became 
necessary,  and  being  absent  from  the  Philippines,  I  completed  it 
alone,  and  am  individually  responsible.  I  wish  to  express  here  my 
obligation  to  Mr.  Ledyard  for  his  help  on  the  preliminary  work,  and 
for  helpful  criticisin  of  the  completed  manuscript.  For  helpful  criti- 
cism and  suggestions,  thanks  are  also  due  Dr.  David  P.  Barrows, 
Director  of  Education  for  the  Philippine  Islands ;  C.  W.  Burkett, 
joint  author  of  Agriculture  for  Beginners  ;  K.  L.  Hatch,  joint  author 
of  Elementary  Agriculture ;  W.  J.  Spillman,  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture ;  John  W.  Ritchie,  author  of  the  Physiology  and 
Hygiene  used  in  the  Philippines;  E.  N.  Henderson,  Adelphi  College, 
Brooklyn,  N.Y. ;  F.  M.  De  Forest,  St.  Paul's  School,  Concord,  N.H. ; 
W.  W.  Rodwell,  Division  Superintendent,  I^aguna  Province,  P.I. ;  and 
H.  H.  Buck,  Division  Superintendent,  Batangas  Province,  P. I. 

For  the  use  of  photographs,  many  of  which  are  copyrighted,  ac- 
knowledgment is  made  to  Hon.  Dean  C.  Worcester,  Secretary  of  the 
Department  of  the  Interior,  Philippine  Islands;  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.C. ;  'La  Hacienda;  The 
World's  Work;  Dr.  Harold  W.  Fairbanks ;  Professor  John  W.  Ritchie ; 
and  Caspar  W.  Hodgson. 

Finally,  my  greatest  obligation  is  to  the  publishers,  who  have  been 
most  generous  of  time,  labor,  and  expense. 

'     EDWIN   BINGHAM   COPELAND 

Manila,  February  29,  1908 


CONTENTS 


List  of  Illustrations 
To  THE  Teacher 
Introduction 

CHAITER 

I.  Plants  . 

II.  The  Seed 

III.  The  Soil 

IV'.  The  Vo()\)  of  Plants 

V.  Plants  and  Light 

VI.  Plants  and  Water 

VII.  Climate  and  A(;riculture 

VIII.  The  Livlng  Enemies  of  Crops 

IX.  The  Garden 

X.  Starch  Plants 

XL  Maize     . 

XII.  Rice 

XIII.  Sioar-Cane  . 

XIV.  The  Coconut 
XV.  FiHER  Plants 

XVI.      TOHACCO 

XVII.     Coffee  . 
XVIII.     Cacao    . 
XIX.     Fruits    . 
Glossary 
Index   .... 


PAGE 

vii 

xi 

I 

3 
II 
i6 

24 
32 
35 
46 

53 
61 
82 
90 
•03 
1 12 

'33 
150 

ir.o 
168 

'73 
.87 
190 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS 


FIG 

PAGE 

I 

Map  of  garden  plot xii 

2 

Mushroom 

5 

3 

White  American  bean    . 

6 

4 

Sinamay 

7 

5 

Seedh'ng  bean 

8 

6 

Stem  of  bamboo     . 

9 

7 

Parts  of  a  leaf 

9 

8 

Parts  of  a  flower     . 

10 

9 

Parts  of  a  seed 

1 1 

lO 

Split  coconut  showing  husk 

12 

II 

Squash  seed  . 

13 

12 

('terminating  squash  seed 

'3 

13 

(ierminating  bean 

13 

14 

Sprouting  coconuts 

14 

'5 

Germinated  maize 

14 

i6 

Jack-fruit  showing  seeds 

'5 

17 

Papaya  showing  seeds    . 

15 

i8 

Diagram  of  soil,  sul)soil,  and  rock 

16 

•9 

Church  tower  overgrown  with  j^lants 

17 

20 

Rocks  standing  out  on  seacoast 

18 

21 

Stones  in  soil          .... 

'9 

22 

Fertile  alluvial  .soil  in  a  valley 

20 

23 

A  sandy  beach       .... 

22 

24 

Coconuts  from  fertilized  and  unfertilizet 

land 

27 

25 

Tubercles  on  roots  of  bean  plant     . 

29 

26 

Maize  in  rich  .soil  .... 

30 

27 

Maize  in  sand  or  gravel 

30 

28 

Stem  placed  in  red  ink  (experiment) 

37 

29 

Particles  of  soil       .... 

3« 

30 

Root  hairs 

39 

3' 

Soil  very  badly  cracked 

41 

VIU 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


Arid  land  before  irrigation 

Arid  land  after  irrigation 

Irrigation  ditch 

Rainfall  map 

Locust  .... 

Metamorphosis  of  the  coconut  beetle 

Catching  a  swarm  of  locusts 

Spraying  machine  . 

Coffee  plant  stripped  by  rust 

Philippine  Normal  School  garden 

Hoe  and  rake 

Spade  and  fork 

Seed  box  to  protect  seed  from  ants 

Sweet  potato,  or  camote 

Ubi  vine 

Taro,  or  gabi 

Beet 

Turnip  . 

Radish  . 

Garlic    . 

A  field  of  onions    . 

A  cabbage  field 

A  head  of  lettuce   . 

Cucumber 

Squash  . 

Ampalaya 

Field  of  watermelons 

Sitao 

Peanut  plant  with  fruit 

Okra      . 

Tomatoes,  boxed  for  market 

American  eggplant 

Philippine  eggplant 

Red  pepper    . 

Maniok,  or  cassava 

Potatoes 

Arrowroot 

Field  of  maize 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


IX 


70.  Stalk  of  maize  showing  inflorescences 

71.  Diagram  of  pistillate  inflorescence 

72.  Ear  of  maize  in  husk    . 

73.  Several  varieties  of  maize 

74.  Philippine  plow    . 

75.  Modern  steam  gang  plow 

76.  Maize  —  cultivated 
^^.  Maize  —  neglected 

78.  Head  of  rice 

79.  Terraced  rice  paddies  . 

80.  Igorot  women  transplanting 

81.  Old  way  of  threshing  rice 

82.  A  modern  rice  thresher 

83.  Stalk  of  sugar-cane 

84.  Apex  of  stem  of  sugar-cane 

85.  Philippine  sugar  mill    . 

86.  Sugar-cane  in  flower     . 

87.  Things  made  from  coconut  shells 

88.  Coconut  trees  on  the  seashore 

89.  FloWers  and  fruit  of  the  coconut  tree 

90.  Coconut  groves    .... 

91.  Coconuts  germinating  in  seed  bed 

92.  Husking  coconuts 

93.  Collecting  tuba     .... 

94.  Field  of  abaci       .... 

95.  Taking  abacA  fiber  to  market 

96.  Primitive  abacA  press    . 

97.  Hunch  of  abacA  fruit     . 

98.  AbacA  fruit  showing  seeds    . 

99.  Removing  outer  strips  of  abacA  stems 

100.  Splitting  ai)ac;i  before  stripping    . 

101.  Stripping  abacA    .... 

102.  Drying  abacA        .... 

103.  Maguey  plants      .... 

104.  Pineapple  plants  in  fruit 

105.  Cotton  field  and  cotton-picking  machin 

106.  Flower  of  the  tobacco  plant 

107.  A  well-cultivated  tobacco  field 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


FIO. 

PAGE 

1 08 

Tobacco  plant 158 

109 

Coffee  fruit  . 

160 

IIO 

Coffee  plantation 

16s 

III 

Drying  coffee 

166 

112 

Healthy  young  cacao  tree 

168 

113 

Cacao  tree  in  fruit 

172 

114 

Bunch  of  latandan  bananas 

174 

115 

The  morada  banana      . 

'75 

116 

Papaya  tree  in  fru 

it 

177 

117 

Pomelo 

178 

118 

Orange 

179 

119 

Lemons 

179 

120 

Mango  tree  . 

180 

121 

Inarching     . 

181 

122 

Mangosteen 

183 

123 

Atis     . 

183 

124 

Chico  . 

184 

125 

Guavas 

184 

126 

Breadfruit    . 

185 

TO  thp:  teacher 

No  teacher  of  this  subject  may  forget  that  its  value  is  in  its  practice; 
that  it  is  studied  not,  in  the  end,  for  the  sake  of  what  can  be  learned, 
but  for  the  sake  of  what  can  be  done  with  what  is  learned.  Fully  half  of 
every  student's  work  in  agriculture  should  be  devoted  to  his  garden,  and 
to  the  preparation  of  reports  on  his  work  there. 

The  Note-Book.  Each  student  should  have  a  note-book.  In  it  he 
should  report  fully  everything  that  he  does,  his  reason  for  doing  it,  and 
what  it  teaches  him.  Each  day's  work  should  be  written  up  in  the  note- 
book on  that  day.  The  teacher  can  have  the  notes  kept  satisfactorily 
only  by  examining  the  note-books  often  and  without  previous  notice. 
From  the  daily  notes  the  students  should  compile  reports  on  the  differ- 
ent plants  with  which  they  work.  For  the  sake  of  completeness  and 
convenience  as  to  inspection  and  use,  these  reports  should  be  uniform 
in  arrangement.  The  following  general  form  may  be  used,  with  the 
facts  called  for  put  in  the  note-book  under  each  heading  : 

Seed:  Origin. 

Time  required  for  germination. 

(terminating  power  (per  cent  which  germinate). 
Date  of  planting. 

Transplanting  (if  done) :  Date,  and  size  of  plants. 
Soil :    Sand,  loam,  or  clay. 

Preparation. 
Cultivation  :  Dates  and  method. 
Irrigation  :  Dates  and  amount. 
Date  of  flowering. 
Date  of  maturity. 
Crop :  Part  of  plant  used :  amount. 

How  harvested. 

Treatment  of  crop. 

Uses. 
Enemies:   Methods  of  combating  them. 

Influence  of  condition  on  growth,  development,  and  maturing. 
.  Comparison  with  work  of  other  students. 


Beets :  planted  Oct. 
1 8.  Rows  50  cm  apart ; 
plants  25  cm  apart. 
Page  — .* 


Lettuce:  planted 
Oct.  19.  Rows  30  cm 
apart ;  plants  25  cm 
apart.     Page  — .* 


Maize  :  planted  Oct. 
20.  Rows  90  cm  apart ; 
hills  75  cm  apart,  3 
plants  in  each  hill. 
Page  — .* 


Summer  squash: 
planted  Oct.  22.  Hills 
I  m  across,  3  plants  in 
a  hill.     Page  — .* 


& 


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0^  ^  (^  <^  0 
^  ^  ^  ^  (g>  # 


1^  ^   ^ 


i^  ^   ^  ^ 

^    4>    A    4t 


'i'M 


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00 

o 


Fig.  I.     Map  of  garden  plot.     Scale :  2  cm  =  i  m 


'  This  refers  to  the  page  in  the  student's  note-book, 
xii 


TO   THE  TEACHER  xiii 

The  School  Garden.  Every  school  in  which  agriculture  is  taught  must 
of  course  have  a  garden,  which  ought  to  be  large  enough  to  give  each 
student  sufficient  ground  so  that  its  thorough  cultivation  will  require 
nearly  half  of  the  time  he  has  for  this  study.  This  ground  should  be 
typical  of  the  land  in  the  community.  If  the  garden  is  put  on  much 
better  ground  than  most  of  that  about  it,  the  students  may  not  learn  so 
well  from  their  garden  work  how  to  work  on  other  soil.  The  first  thing 
that  must  be  provided  for  a  school  garden,  after  securing  the  land,  is  a 
good  fence.  It  does  not  pay  to  raise  tomatoes  and  beans  for  pigs  and 
goats.  It  is  usually  a  part  of  agriculture  for  men  to  keep  their  lands 
fenced,  and  in  school  the  students  should  do  this  work. 

The  Student's  Plot.  The  size  of  plot  for  each  student  must  depend 
upon  the  available  land  ;  5  meters  by  2\_  is  a  good  size,  but  it  is  possi- 
ble for  a  student  to  keep  in  projier  cultivation  a  plot  at  least  one  half 
larger  than  this.  Rather  than  make  the  plots  much  smaller,  let  two 
students  be  assigned  to  each  ;  for  if  the  plots  are  too  small,  the  distance 
between  the  plants  will  fail  to  show  the  importance  of  space  in  garden- 
ing.    The  paths  between  the  plots  may  be  30  cm  to  50  cm  wide. 

Mapping  the  Plot.  Each  student  should  map  his  plot  with  the 
utmost  exactness,  everything  on  the  map  being  according  to  a  fixed 
scale.  One  to  fifty  is  a  good  scale ;  on  this  scale  2  cm  on  the  map  will 
ecjual  1  meter  on  the  garden.  A  larger  scale  is  still  better,  if  it  does  not 
make  the  map  too  large  for  a  page  of  the  note-book. 

After  the  corners  of  his  plot  are  marked  and  he  has  some  ground 
cultivated,  the  student  should  take  a  rule  and  measure  off  a  fixed  dis- 
tance from  each  of  the  corners  at  one  end,  and  mark  this  distance  with 
a  small  stake.  The  line  connecting  these  stakes  is  parallel  to  the  end 
of  the  plot.  If  it  is  20  cm  from  the  end  of  tiie  plot,  it  will  be  4  mm 
from  the  end  of  a  map  whose  scale  is  one  to  fifty.  If  a  row  of  plants  is 
put  along  this  line,  the  plants  shouUl  be  exactly  on  it.  Do  not  tolerate 
inaccuracy  in  the  measurement  of  tlie  i)l()t,  in  the  notes,  or  in  the  maps. 
Even  the  distance  between  individual  plants  should  be  fixed  and  exact, 
and  shown  in  proper  proportion  on  the  map.  The  map  will  not  be 
made  all  at  once  ;  but  as  soon  as  part  of  tlie  plot  is  ])lanted,  that  part 
will  be  drawn  on  the  map.     .Along  the  sides  of  the   map  should  be  the 


xiv  TO   THE  TEACHER 

names  of  the  plants,  with  a  reference  in  each  case  to  the  page  in  the 
note-book  where  the  experiment  with  this  plant  is  described. 

Choice  of  Plants.  In  deciding  what  plants  shall  be  cultivated  in  the 
school  garden,  first  choice  must  be  given  to  the  plants  in  cultivation  by 
the  people  of  the  locality.  With  these  it  will  be  well  to  cultivate  also 
some  plants  locally  unused,  but  cultivated  elsewhere  in  the  Philippines 
or  elsewhere  in  the  world.  Most  of  the  plants  now  cultivated  in  the 
Philippines  are  natives  of  other  countries  ;  and  the  most  valuable  plants 
of  other  tropical  countries  are  now  cultivated  in  the  Philippines.  The 
seeds  for  each  student's  planting  must  be  so  chosen  that  he  will  have 
work  throughout  the  school  year.  If  plants  which  mature  quickly,  such 
as  the  radish,  are  planted  early  in  the  year,  other  plants  should  be  ready 
to  take  their  place  as  soon  as  the  ground  is  vacant. 

Plant  Records.  A  part  of  the  garden  area  should  be  used  for 
the  cultivation  of  perennial  plants.  In  this  part  every  school  should 
endeavor  to  have  growing  every  perennial  plant  that  is  of  real  economic 
importance  in  cultivation  anywhere  in  the  Islands.  This  part  of  the 
garden  will  illustrate  the  lessons  dealing  with  these  plants.  In  most 
gardens  it  will  be  impossible  for  each  student  to  cultivate  all  the 
important  plants  grown  by  any  student.  However,  none,  even  those 
which  he  does  not  himself  cultivate,  should  be  wanting  from  any  stu- 
dent's note-book.  The  teacher  should  know  the  exact  history  of  each 
plant,  and  should  see  that  the  students'  note-books  contain  as  complete 
an  account  as  possible  of  every  plant  cultivated,  according  to  the  tabu- 
lated form  already  given.  These  accounts  should  be  put  in  the  note- 
books when  the  plants  in  question  are  studied  in  the  text-book.  In 
reporting  the  plants  he  did  not  cultivate,  the  student  should  tell  where 
he  obtained  the  results  stated  and  should  be  very  concise ;  if  possible, 
he  should  in  such  cases  report  averages  from  several  plots  rather  than 
the  work  of  any  one  student. 

Questions  and  Directions.  In  most  of  the  chapters  in  this  book 
are  questions,  or  directions  for  work,  printed  in  a  smaller  type  than 
is  used  for  the  text.  These  questions  should  invariably  be  answered 
in  the  note-book,  and  reports  on  the  work  called  for  should  be  written 
in  full. 


TO    THE  TEACHER  XV 

Value  of  Demonstration.  The  good  teacher  will  always  demonstrate 
everything  possible.  It  will  be  especially  necessary  for  the  teacher  to 
give  to  students  who  have  not  studied  plant  life  good  demonstrations  of 
the  facts  learned  in  that  study,  which  this  book  assumes  all  students  to 
know.  For  instance,  if  the  students  do  not  already  know  them  well,  the 
teacher  should  show  them  every  part  of  all  the  plants  studied,  and  tell 
the  name  of  each  part  and  what  it  does.  There  are  concise  definitions 
in  the  glossary,  which  will  be  helpful  in  this  work,  both  to  student  and 
teacher.  But  no  good  teacher  will  leave  students  to  learn  the  use  of 
many  words,  or  expect  them  to  acquire  a  knowledge  of  the  structure  of 
plants,  or  of  the  parts  of  plants,  from  such  a  condensed  treatment  as  is 
possible  in  this  glossary  or  in  the  body  of  the  book. 

Tools.  The  use  of  tools  cannot  be  taught  by  a  book.  If  the  school 
has  tools,  a  book  is  not  needed  to  teach  what  is  most  important  about 
their  use.  And  if  a  school  is  without  certain  tools,  a  book  will  certainly 
do  no  service  by  devoting  much  space  to  describing  them  and  explaining 
their  use. 


INTRODUCTION 


GRICULTURE  is  one  of  the  oldest  oc- 
cupations of  civilized  men,  and  is  still 
the  most  essential  form  oiJiuman  indus- 
try ;  for  agriculture  supplies  the  food  of 
most  people,  and  most  of  the  raw  ma- 
terial for  manufacture. 

This  book  is  an  attempt  to  present 
concisely  the  fundamental  facts  about  Philippine  agri- 
culture, and  to  show  the  relation  of  these  facts  to  one 
another. 

^Agriculture  is  niore  important  in  the  Philippines  than 
in  countries  of  the  temperate  zones^  because  tliere..  are 
few  manufactures,  and  the  soil  and  climate  are  espe- 
cTaTl)^favoraEIe  to  the  growth  of  plants.  Because  of 
this  advalitage,  agriculture  will  surely  continue  to  be 
the  chief  occupation  in  these  Islands,  and  no  other  sub- 
ject studied  will  have  so  great  an  industrial  value  as  this 
one. 

In  its  narrowest  sense,  agriculture  is  the  cultivation  of 
the  fields.  In  the  broader  sense  in  which  we  are  using 
the  word,  it  includes  gardening,  as  well  as  the  study 
of  the  origin  and  nature  of  soils,  of  the  different  crops, 
and  of  the  uses  of  these  crops. 

Before  students  are  ready  to  study  agriculture,  they 


2  INTRODUCTION- 

must  know  something  about  the  life  of  plants,  and  the 
principal  facts  of  physical  and  political  geography.  Agri- 
culture is  usually  understood  as  including  also  the  care 
of  domesticated  animals,  and  in  some  countries  this  is 
its  most  important  part.  But  in  the  Philippines  animal 
husbandry  is  unimportant  compared  to  plant  industry; 
for  no  animal  product  is  a  usual  article  of  export,  and 
the  principal  local  use  of  animals  is  in  the  cultivation 
of  plants.  Therefore,  the  study  of  agriculture  in  the 
Philippines  includes  little  besides  the  study  of  cultivated 
plants. 

The  need  of  the  study  of  agriculture  is  the  greater 
because  the  fields  are  now  far  less  productive  than  they 
ought  to  be.  Sugar  lands  here  produce  one  quarter  of 
what  lands  no  better  are  made  to  produce  in  Hawaii ; 
coconut  trees  are  half  as  productive  as  in  Ceylon  ;  most 
of  the  coffee  plants  are  dead ;  sweet  potatoes  and  maize 
are  very  poor;  and  cassava  is  neglected,  while  starch, 
which  can  be  made  from  it,  must  be  imported  from 
America.  The  backwardness  of  Philippine  agriculture 
will  of  course  never  be  overcome  as  a  result  of  school 
work  alone,  even  if  the  work  be  done  in  the  high  schools, 
where  it  may  be  done  most  effectively.  But  there  are 
more  heads  and  more  hands  in  the  work  of  the  lower 
schools.  The  boys  who  study  agriculture  must  know 
that  they  are  not  only  preparing  themselves  for  the  most 
general  industry  of  these  islands,  but  are  helping  by  their 
work,  in  school  and  after  school,  in  the  uplifting  of  their 
people. 


chaptp:r  I 

PLANTS 

Plants  and  Animals.  Everybody  can  tell  a  tyj)ical  plant 
from  a  typical  animal.  Maize  is  a  typical  plant ;  so  is 
a  tree  or  a  bush.  The  carabao  is  a  typical  animal  ; 
dogs,  birds,  and  insects  are  other  typical  animals. 

Plants  cannot  Move.  Plants  live  all  their  lives  in  one 
place;  while  animals  walk,  or  fly,  or  swim,  or  crawl. 
Everybody  knows  why  animals  move.  They  move  to 
get  food. 

Plants  are  living  things,  just  as  surely  as  animals  are; 
and  since  they  are  living  things,  they,  too,  must  have 
food.  The  food  of  j^lants  must  be  made  up  of  things 
which  are  where  the  j)lants  grow;  or  else  the  plants, 
because  they  cannot  move  to  get  their  food,  would 
starve. 

Foods  of  Plants.  Water  is  one  of  the  most  impor- 
tant foods  for  j)lants.  There  is  water  in  the  soil,  and 
the  roots  get  this  water  for  the  ])lant.  Dissolved  in 
this  water  are  other  foods  v.-hich  jilants  need.  Plants 
also  get  much  food  out  of  the  air.  One  of  the  sub- 
stances which  make  up  the  air  is  carbon  dioxid.  This 
substance  is  injurious  to  animals,  but  a  most  imi)()rtant 
food  for  plants.  It  is  being  formed  all  the  time,  by 
the  breathing  of  living  things,  and  by  the  burning  of 
wood,  coal,  and  oil. 

3 


4  PHILIPPINE  AGRICULTURE 

How  Plants  make  Food.  It  is  only  in  the  light  that 
plants  are  able  to  use  carbon  dioxid  as  a  food.  Car- 
bon is  taken  from  the  air  by  the  leaves.  The  leaves 
contain  a  green  substance  called  chlorophyll.  It  is  be- 
cause they  have  this  green  substance  that  plants  can 
use  the  carbon  dioxid  as  a  food.  This  chlorophyll  ab- 
sorbs the  light.  By  means  of  the  light  which  is  ab- 
sorbed by  the  chlorophyll,  the  carbon  dioxid  in  the 
leaves  is  united  with  the  water  taken  up  by  the  roots, 
and  forms  sugar,  which  is  a  plant  food. 

How  Plants  differ  from  Animals.  You  have  learned 
that  plants,  like  animals,  are  living  things.  You  have 
also  found  out  that  typical  plants  differ  from  animals. 
They  differ  in  four  important  respects : 

1.  Plants  are  green,  containing  a  green  pigment,  or 
color-body,  chlorophyll,  which  is  not  found  in  animals. 

2.  By  means  of  chlorophyll,  plants  absorb  the  sun- 
light, and  by  means  of  the  light,  they  can  make  or- 
ganic food,  such  as  sugar,  from  the  inorganic  sub- 
stances, carbon  dioxid  and  water. 

3.  Since  these  very  simple  food  substances,  carbon 
dioxid  and  water,  are  almost  everywhere  in  the  world, 
plants  need  not  move  to  get  their  food.  Therefore, 
plants  are  stationary. 

4.  Since  plants  are  stationary,  they  can  protect 
themselves  with  rigid  cell  walls.  These  are  made  of 
cellulose.  Since  animals  must  niove  to  get  their  food, 
they  can  have  no  such  rigid  cell  walls. 

There  are  many  plants  which  are  not  typical.     Mush- 


PLANTS 


rooms,  for  instance,  arc  without  chlorophyll,  and  there- 
fore cannot  make  their  own  organic  food.     But  they  are 
known  to  be  plants,  because  certain  things 
show  that  they  are  descended  from  typical 
plants.  _^ 

Since    Philippine   agriculture  is  almost    />>'V^V)i^| 
entirely    devoted    to   plants,    the    subjects 
for  our  study  are  plants  and   the   factors 
which    influence    the    growth    of    plants. 
The  chief   of   these    are    the    soil,    water,    fig.  2.  Mushroom 
light,  and  heat. 

Name  four  typical  plants  ;  four  typical  animals.     In  what  way  are 
plants  like  animals?     How  are  they  different? 
Why  must  animals  move  to  get  their  food  ? 
How  do  plants  get  their  food? 
Name  some  plant  that  is  not  typical.     Why  is  it  not  typical? 

KINDS  OF    PLANTS 

There  are  more  than  300,000  kinds  of  plants  in  the 
world.     They  are  divided  into  five  great  groups : 

1.  Seaweeds.  The  simplest  plants  form  a  group  called 
seaweeds,  most  of  which  live  in  water.  All  other  plants 
are  descended  from  these.  They  have  no  distinct  leaves, 
stems,  and  roots,  but  do  contain  chlorophyll.  Many  of 
them  are  food  for  fish. 

2.  Fungi.  The  fungi  differ  from  seaweeds  in  not 
containing  chlorophyll.  They  must  get  their  food  as 
animals  do,  from  other  j)lants  or  animals.  Some  of 
them,  as  the  mushrooms,  get  tlicir  food  from  the  re- 
mains of  dead  things.     Hut  many  of  them,  called  para- 


6 


PHILIPPINE  AGRICULTURE 


sites,  live  on  other  living  plants.  Some  of  these  do 
great  damage.  The  worst  Philippine  parasite  is  the 
coffee  rust. 

3.  Mosses.  Mosses  are  unimportant  plants  descended 
from  seaweeds. 

^_^  4.   Ferns.    Ferns  are  beautiful 

il\m        ^\  plants,  descended  from  the  moss 

m  i    IM  ^    A        group.     They  have  roots,  stems, 

V  I     amm  /■        ^.nd    leaves,    but    do    not    form 

seeds. 

5.  Seed  Plants.  Plants  having 
flowers  and  seeds  are  called  seed 
plants.  In  this  group  are  the 
most  important  plants,  and  al- 
most all  the  cultivated  plants, 
including  trees,  ornamental 
plants,  and  all  food  plants. 

Scientific  Names.  Each  kind 
of  plant  is  a  species,  and  has  a 
Latin  name.  This  name  is  made  of  two  parts  —  a 
genus  name,  and  a  species,  or  specific,  name. 

A  plant  has  a  genus  name,  just  as  a  person  has  a 
family  name,  and  a  species  name,  just  as  a  person  has 
a  given  name.  Thus  each  plant  in  the  Phaseolus  genus 
is  called  Phaseolus.  Then,  to  distinguish  a  plant  from 
others  in  the  same  genus,  a  species  name  is  added. 
Among  the  plants  of  the  Phaseolus  genus,  for  instance, 
are  the  mungo,  the  patani,  and  the  white  American  bean. 
They  are  called  Phaseolus  Mungo,  Phaseolus  lunatus. 


Fig.  3.   Phaseolus  vulgaris,  or 
white  American  bean 


PLANTS  7 

and  Phaseolus  vulgaris.  The  genus  name  is  always 
written  before  the  species  name.  The  name  of  the 
mushroom    shown    in    Figure    2    is  Agariciis  Merrilli. 

THE   USES   OF   PLANTS 

Food.  The  study  of  plants  is  more  fundamentally 
important  to  us  than  is  any  other  subject  of  study.  For 
our  greatest  want  is  food,  and  all  our  food,  except  water 


Fig.  4.     Sinamay 

and  salt,  is  furnished  by  plants.  If  we  cat  meat,  or 
eggs,  or  fish,  we  arc  still  dependent  on  plants,  for  they 
nourish  the  animals  we  eat. 

Fuel.  We  are  equally  dependent  on  ])lants  for  our 
fuel,  used  for  warmth,  cooking,  or  lighting.  This 
is  still  true  even  if  we  burn  coal,  for  coal  is  made  of 
the  remains  of  plants  which  lived  long  ago. 

Clothing.  For  most  of  our  clothing,  also,  we  arc 
dependent  on  plants.  The  most  important  of  the  textile 
materials  is  cotton;  others  are  hemp,  flax,  pina,  and 
abaca. 


8 


PHILIPPINE  AGRICULTURE 


Building  Materials.  Plants  furnish  our  most  useful 
building  materials.  While  some  houses  have  stone 
walls,  and  roofs  of  tile  or  iron,  these  materials  are  not 
nearly  so  much  used  as  lumber.  Many  houses  in  the 
Philippines  are  built  entirely  of  nipa,  bamboo,  and 
rattan. 

Medicines.  Most  of  the  medicines  are  furnished  us  by 
plants.  A  book  about  Philippine 
medicinal  plants  has  been  written  by 
Dr.  Pardo  de  Tavera. 

Plants  furnish  us  many  other  useful 
substances,  such  as  rubber,  gutta 
percha,  resins,  and  most  kinds  of  wax, 
and  gums. 

Soil  enriched  by  Plants.  Plants  also 
improve  the  soil.  Most  plants  cannot 
grow  where  plants  have  not  grown 
before.  The  finest  soil  is  where 
many  plants  have  lived  and  died  and 
decayed. 

Beauty  of  Plants.    Plants  make  beau  - 
tiful  the  places  where  they  grow,  and 
beauty  has  very  real  value. 


Fig.  5.  Seedling  bean, 
showing  leaves,  cotyle- 
dons, stem,  and  root 


THE   PARTS   OF   PLANTS 

The  Root.  The  first  part  of  the  plant  which  comes 
out  of  the  seed  grows  downward.  This  part  of  the  plant 
is  called  the  root.  The  function,  or  work,  of  the  root  is 
to  fasten  the  plant  securely  in  its  place,  and  to  take  from 


PLANTS 


the  ground  both  water  and  substances  which  are  dissolved 
in  the  water. 

The  Shoot.  The  part  of  the  plant  which  starts  upward 
from  the  seed,  and  usually  grows  in  the  air,  is  the  shoot. 
The  shoot  is  composed  of  stem  and  leaves. 
The  stem  is  the  axis  of  the  shoot.  The  stem 
of  a  large  plant,  such  as  a  tree,  is  composed  of 
the  trunk  and  the  branches.  The  functions, 
or  duties,  of  the  stem  are  to  hold  the  leaves 
where  they  will  be  exposed  to  the  light,  and 
to  carry  substances  between  the  roots  and  the 
leaves.  Stems  are  made  up  of  nodes  and  inter- 
nodes.  The  nodes  are  the  places  where  leaves 
and  branches  come  out  of  the  stem,  and  tlie 
internodes  are  the  parts  of  the  stem  between 
the  nodes. 

Leaves.  In  general,  leaves  grow  in  such 
a  position  as  to  receive  tlie 
most  light.  Leaves  are  very 
imjDortant  parts  of  the  plant, 
for  in  them  the  raw  substances 
taken  from  the  ground  and 
the  air  are  made  into  useful  foods  for  the 
plant.  The  parts  of  a  leaf  are  the  base, 
the  petiole,  or  leaf-stem,  and  the  blade. 

Vegetative  Parts.  The  stem,  leaves, 
and  roots  work  together  to  secure  and 
Fig.  7.  Paris  of  a  leaf  storc  up  food,  and  tluis  to  build  a  strong, 
healthy  plant.     They  are  called  its  vegetative  parts. 


l-ic.  6. 
Stem  of  bam- 
boo   showing 
nodes  and  in- 
tern ode 


lO 


PHILIPPINE  AGRICULTURE 


style 


anther 


sepal 


seed,  or  ovule 


ovary 


Fig.  8.     Parts  of  a  flower 


Reproductive  Parts.  A  plant  has  also  reproductive 
parts,  whose  work  is  the  production  of  young  plants. 
These    reproductive    parts    are  the    flowers,  fruits,   and 

ro stigma  sccds.     One   of     the    parts 

of  a  perfect  flower  is  the 
ovary.  The  ovary  contains 
-stamen  ovulcs,  and  cach  ovule  con- 
. petal  tains  an  ^^^,  which  can 
grow  into  a  plant  like  its 
parent.  When  the  &^^  has 
grown  for  a  little  while, 
its  growth  ceases,  and  the 
coats  of  the  ovule  harden  around  it ;  we  then  have  a 
seed.  While  the  ovules  are  thus  changing  into  seeds, 
the  ovary  surrounding  them  develops  into  a  fruit. 

Find  the  ovules  in  the  flower  on  patani,  and  show  by  a  series  of 
young  fruits  that  these  ovules  become  the  seeds.  Draw  the  different 
stages. 

Name  fifteen  cultivated  plants,  and  tell  for  what  each  is  useful. 

Name  three  plants  cultivated  for  their  roots ;  three  cultivated  for 
their  stems ;  three,  for  their  leaves ;  three,  for  their  fruits ;  three,  for 
their  seeds. 

What  parts  of  the  pineapple  plant  are  valuable?  For  what  are  they 
valuable?     What  parts  of  the  coconut  tree  are  useful? 

What  do  you  think  is  the  most  important  Philippine  plant  ? 

Name  two  Philippine  medicinal  plants,  and  give  their  uses. 


CHAPTER   II 


THE  SEED 


Parts  of  the  Seed.  A  seed  is  a  reproductive  structure, 
composed  of  the  embryo,  seed  coats,  and  sometimes  an 
endosperm. 

Embryo.  The  embryo  is  the  young  plant,  in  the  seed. 
Its  parts  are  the  radicle,  the  cotyledons,  and  the  plumule. 
The  radicle  becomes  the  root  of  the  plant,  and  the  plu- 
mule becomes  the  shoot. 

Seed  Coats.  The  seed  coats  consist  of  an  outer  coat 
and  an  inner  coat,  and  are  to  pro- 
tect the  embryo.  The  outer  coat, 
called  the  testa,  is  always  hard; 
the  inner  coat  is  called  the  teg- 
men.  In  some  seeds  the  inner 
and  the  outer  coats  cannot  be  sep- 
arated. There  is  a  hole  thr6uu:h 
the  seed  coats  called  the  micro- 
pyle,  by  which  water  can  enter 
the  seed.     Through  this  hole  the 

radicle  comes  when  the  seed  germinates,  or  begins    to 
grow. 

Endosperm.  Some  seeds,  such  as  the  seed  of  the  coconut 
palm,  and  of  maize,  contain  a  store  of  food  outside  the  em- 
bryo, but  inside  the  seed  coat ;  this  [)art  of  the  seed  is  called 


^  cotyledons 
Fid.  9.     Parts  of  a  see-d 


12 


PHILlPPmE  AGRICULTURE 


an  endosperm.  Many  seeds  contain  no  endosperm;  such 
seeds  have  their  food  stored  in  the  cotyledons.  Squash 
arid  bean  seeds  have  no  endosperm. 

Germination  of  Seeds.    If  seeds  are  dry,  they  can  remain 

alive  for  a  long  time,  but 

when  they  are  moist,  they 

must  either  germinate,  or 

die   and    decay.     A   seed 

can  germinate  only  when 

it  has  moisture,  air,  and  a 

proper     temperature. 

Enough    air    is   dissolved 

in  water  to  permit  some 

.,  -^^^^^^^».  - ,—      seeds  to  germinate  if  they 

w'4M^^^^^^^^^^^Hrfl^y      are  under  water,  but  most 

^  ^^^^^^^^H^V       seeds  will   decay    if   they 

are    kept   there  long.     A 
seed    is    more    likely    to 
germinate   in    moderately 
Fig.  io.  Split  coconut  showing  fruit  coat,     cool  than  in  Warm  water. 
"■^^"^•^  Kinds  of   Seeds.    There 

are  as  many  kinds  of  seeds  as  there  are  kinds  of  flower- 
ing plants.  Related  plants  usually  have  similar  seeds 
and  fruit.  All  the  plants  whose  seeds  have  one  cotyledon 
are  called  monocotyledons ;  among  these  are  rice,  maize, 
cane,  gabi,  abaca,  and  palms.  Plants  whose  seeds  con- 
tain two  cotyledons  are  called  dicotyledons ;  among  these 
are  beans,  squashes,  tobacco,  coffee,  and  many  other 
plants.     Ferns   are  without   seeds.     The   largest   of  all 


THE  SEED 


13 


seeds  is  the  coconut.  The  Big  Trees  of  California  have 
seeds  so  small  that  500,000  of  them  weigh  only  one  kilo- 
gram ;  but  a  tree  grown  from  one  of  these  seeds  may 
weigh  a  thousand  tons. 


P'lC.    II. 

Squash  seed 


Study  of  Squash  Seed.  Examine  a  squash  seed,  noting  its  shape.  Draw 
the  seetl.  In  the  sharper  end  is  a  small  hole,  the  micropyle.  Carefully 
remove  the  testa,  or  outer  coat.  The  thin,  greenish  inner 
coat,  the  tegmen,  may  then  be  seen.  Remove  the  teg- 
men  ;  what  is  left  is  the  embryo.  Its  sharper  end  is  the 
radicle.  Two  fleshy  cotyledons  make  up  the  most  of  the 
embryo  ;  they  are  attached  to  the  up- 
per end  of  the  radicle.  Between  the  cotyledons,  at 
the  base,  is  a  small,  triangular  structure,  growing 
on  the  top  of  the  radicle ;    this  is  the  plumule. 

('terminate  squash  seeds  on  moist  pai)er,  or  in 
sand  or  sawdust.  What  part  is  first  to  come  out  of 
the  seed?  Where  does  it  come  out?  In  what  di- 
rection does  it  grow?  Plant  some  of  the  seeds  in 
sand,  sawdust,  or  earth.  What  parts  appear  fust 
above  the  surf:ice?  Try  to  germinate 
seeds  under  water;  what  happens? 
Let  the  sand  in  which  some  are  germi- 
nating become  dry;  what  happens? 
Study  of  the  Bean.  Study  a  bean  in  the  same  way. 
Are  the  seed  coats  separable?  Is  the  embryo  straight? 
Do  the  cotyledons  of  all  seeds  appear  above  the  ground? 
Study  of  Coconut  Seed.  Remove  the  husk  and  hard 
shell  of  the  coconut ;  what  remains  is  the  seoil.  'iiie  seed 
coats  are  thin  and  inconspicuous.  'J'he  meat  of  the  coco  '"=•  '.v  Oor- 
nut,  wliich,  when  dried,  is  copra,  is  a  ])art  of  the  en- 
dosperm ;  the  water  inside  the  meat  is  also  a  part  of  the  endosperm. 
Embedded  in  the  meat,  under  one  of  the  three  eyes,  is  the  enibrvo. 
Split  it.     The  end  next  the  shell  is  the  radicle.     The  other  end  is  the 


Fl(j.  12.     Oerminating 
squash  seed 


14 


PHILIPPINE  AGRICULTURE 


single  cotyledon.  Embedded  in  it,  pointing  toward  the  inside,  is  the 
plumule.  This  cannot  be  seen  plainly  until  the  seed  begins  to  germi- 
nate. 


Germination  of  Coconut.    When    the    coconut    germi- 
nates, the  embryo  elongates,  pushingout  through  the  eye, 

and  bending  downward. 
After  the  roots  become  sev- 
eral centimeters  long,  the 
plumule  breaks  out  through 
a  slit  in  the  embryo,  just  be- 
low the  shell,  and  grows  up- 
ward. The 
inner  tip  of  the 
cotyledon  en- 
larges, and 
becomes  a 
porous  body, 
called  a  foot,  inside  the  meat,  from  which 
it  extracts  food  for  the  young,  growing 
plant. 

Draw  a  coconut  seedling,  with  half  of  the  shell 

and  meat  removed. 

What  is  the  taste  of  the  foot?     What  gives  it  this 

taste? 

Fig.  15.    Germinated 

maize 

The  Fruit  Coat.    The  husk  of  the  coco- 
nut is  the  fruit  coat.     Many  seeds  are  even  more  firmly 
united  to  the  fruit  coats  than  is  the  coconut.     This  is 
true  of  maize  and  other  grains. 


Fig.  14.    Sprouting  coconuts 
ready  for  planting 


THE  SEED 


15 


Study  of  Maize  and  Castor  Bean.  Dissect  and  germinate  some  seeds 
of  maize.  Is  maize  seed  more  like  the  squash  seed  or  the  coconut? 
Study  the  castor  bean  in  the  same  way.  How  does  it  resemble  the  coco- 
nut?    How  is  it  like  the  squash  seed? 

Fruits.  A  fruit  is  the  entire  reproductive  structure 
developed  from  a  single  ovary.  A  fruit  may  contain  one 
seed,  or  few  seeds,  or  many  seeds.  Most  fruits  which 
contain  a  single  seed  do  not  set  it  free,  but  instead  of 


^ 


Fic;.  16.     )ack-fruit  slio\\ing  seeds 


Papaya  showing  seeds 


this  the  whole  fruits  are  scattered  and  planted.  All 
grasses  and  many  weeds  have  such  fruits.  The  grass 
family  includes  bamboo,  and  all  grains.  Many-seeded 
fruits  scatter  their  seeds  in  various  ways. 

How  are  the  seeds  of  eggplant  scattered?     Of  cotton?     Of  castor 
bean?     Of  papaya? 


CHAPTER   III 


THE   SOIL 

Any  part  of  the  surface  of  the  earth  in  which  ordinary 
plants  may  grow,  or  which  can  be 
made  fit  for  crops,  is  called  soil. 

The  larger  part  of  the  earth's  sur- 
face is  water;  ordinary  plants  cannot 
grow  in  the  sea,  which  of  course  is 
not  soil.  Some  of  the  earth's  surface 
is  solid  or  broken  rock ;  this  part,  like- 
wisp,  is  not  a  fit  place  for  ordinary 
plants. 

Rocks  are  under  all  soils,  every- 
where ;  but  soils  vary  greatly  in  depth. 
Soil  in  level  places  is  usually  deeper 
than  on  mountains,  because  the  soil 
Fig.  i8.  Diagram  show-  washcs    from    the    mountains    to    the 

ing    the     positions     of  ,, 

soil,  subsoil,    and  rock     vaiieyS. 

THE   ORIGIN   OF   SOIL 

Weathering.  In  all  towns  in  the  Philippines  there 
are  old  stone  buildings  or  old  stone  walls.  On  these, 
and  in  the  cracks  between  the  stones,  plants  are  grow- 
ing ;  so  there  must  be  soil  here.  But  on  a  new  wall  or  a 
new  building  we  can  find  no  plants  and  no  soil. 

i6 


THE  SOIL 


i; 


As  the  wall  grows  old  the  softer  parts  and  the  more 
exposed  parts  begin  to  disintegrate,  or  wear  away.  The 
wearing  away  is  due  to  the 
"  weather,"  and  therefore  is 
called  "  weathering." 

This  "  weather  "  which 
can  disintegrate  rocks  is 
made  up  of  three  factors: 
the  moisture,  the  wind, 
and  changes  of  temper- 
ature. The  most  active  of 
these  factors  is  the  mois- 
ture. Some  of  the  soil 
formed  by  weathering 
blows  away  as  dust,  or 
washes  away  and  becomes 
mud.  Some  remains  on 
the  walls  and  is  the  soil 
in  which  we  see  the  plants 
growing. 

How  old  must  walls  be  before 
plants  grow  on  them?  Will  this 
happen  sooner  in  dry  or  in  moist 
places  ? 

Formation  of  Soil.  All  the  land  surface  of  the  earth 
came  originally  from  beneath  the  sea,  and  was  once 
solid  rock.  Just  as  stone  walls  are  made  by  the  weather 
into  places  where  plants  can  grow,  so  the  exposed  part 
of  this  rock  is  made  into  soil.     In  the  disintegration  of 


Fit;.  19.  TowiT  ol  cluiich  at  Daraga, 
Albay,  ruini'd  by  eruption  of  Mayon  in 
1814,  now  overgrown  with  plants 


PHILIPPINE  AGRICULTURE 


the  rocks  of  the  earth,  running  water  also  is  very  active. 
In  cold  countries,  ice  has  helped  to  do  this  work. 

As  is  true  of  walls,  some  parts  of  rocks  are  softer  than 
others,  and  disintegrate  more  quickly.     Most  of  the  hills 


Fig.  20.     Rocks  standing  out  of  the  sea  on  the  coast  of  Northern  California 

and  mountains  in  the  world  are  the  hard  spots  which 
have  been  left,  while  the  softer  places  around  them  have 
worn  away. 

KINDS   OF   SOIL,   BY   ORIGIN 

Residual  Soil  and  Loess.  While  the  soil  was  forming 
from  the  rocks,  some  of  it  was  carried  away,  and  some 
remained  at  or  near  the  places  where  it  was  formed. 
The  latter  kind  is  called  residual  soil.  Some  fine  soils 
are  so  light  that  the  wind  can  carry  them  as  dust.  Soil 
formed  by  the  settling,  or  deposition,  of  fine  particles 
from  the  air  is  called  loess ;  it  is  usually  a  very  compact 
soil,  because  it  is  made  up  entirely  of  fine  particles. 
Dust  blown  into  the  air  by  volcanoes  sometimes  settles 
as  loess. 


THE  SOIL 


19 


Alluvial  Soil.  Most  of  the  soil  which  moves  from  one 
place  to  another  is  carried  by  running  water.  Even  the 
clearest  creeks  and  rivers  always  carry  some  of  the  land 
with  them.  When  there  are 
storms,  a  great  deal  of  water 
runs  from  the  land,  and  the 
soil  carried  with  it  makes 
the  stream  muddy. 

In  the  mountains,  rivers 
run  so  rapidly  that  they  can 
carry  not  only  mud,  but 
even  large  stones.  When 
they  reach  more  level  land, 
where  they  flow  more 
slowly,  the  stones  are  left. 
Lower  down,  where  the 
water  runs  still  more  slowly, 
it  loses  the  gravel ;  and 
then  the  sand  falls  to  the 
bottom.  The  finest  par- 
ticles of  the  soil  are  carried 
on,  and  sink  to  the  bottom 
of  the  still  water  at  the  rivers'  mouths.  In  this  way 
deltas  are  formed. 

Soil  deposited  from  water  is  alluvial  soil.  Alluvial 
soil  is  usually  fine  and  uniform.  It  is  j^rovidcd  with 
all  the  foods  of  plants,  and  is  easy  to  cultivate  because  it 
is  level.  The  level  land  near  Manila  i^ay,  and  almost  all 
other  level  land  in  the  Philippines,  is  alluvial. 


Fk;. 


Sl(jni-s  ill  soil 


20 


PHILIPPINE  AGRICULTURE 


When    plants   and   animals    die,  their   bodies 
a  part  of  the  soil.     Where  vegetation  is  very 


Mold, 
become 

dense,  as  it  is  in  heavy  forests,  a  large  part  of  the  soil 
is  formed  in  this  way.  Soil  formed  mostly  by  the  decay 
of  plants  and  animals  is  called  mold.     Mold  is  always  a 


Fig.  22.    Fertile  alluvial  soil  in  a  valley 

rich  soil,  because  it  is  made  up  of  what  has  already  been 
plant  food. 

Humus.  In  marshes  the  organic  matter —  the  bodies 
of  plants  and  animals  —  sometimes  cannot  decay,  be- 
cause there  is  no  air  in  the  soil.  Such  soil  becomes 
sour,  and  therefore  useless.  A  soil  which  is  sour 
because  it  contains  much  insufficiently  decayed  matter 
is  called  humus. 

Most  plants  cannot  live  in  sour  soil ;  but  if  humus 
is  well  aired,  it  will  become  an  excellent  place  for  them. 


THE  SOIL  21 

Putting  lime  on  it  also  will  make  it  fit  for  plants  to 
grow  in. 

THE   STRUCTURE   OV   SOIL 

Qualities  of  good  Soil.  In  order  that  plants  may  grow 
well,  it  is  most  important  that  the  soil  should  have  the 
power  to  hold  water.  It  must  also  be  well  aired,  and 
must  contain  the  foods  that  plants  require. 

Weigh  exactly  a  kilogram  of  moist  soil.  Spread  it  out  on  a  paper 
or  board  in  the  sun,  taking  care  that  none  is  lost.  When  it  is  as  dry  as 
it  will  become,  weigh  it  again,  and  so  learn  what  per  cent  more  of  water 
was  in  it  than  is  in  air-dry  soil.  Dry  it  in  or  on  a  stove,  and  weigh  it 
again.  Its  further  loss  of  weight  shows  that  air-dry  soil  is  not  really  dry. 
Put  it  in  the  sun  for  two  hours,  and  weigh  again.  It  is  now  heavier, 
which  shows  that  really  dry  soil  can  take  up  moisture  from  the  air. 

Make  these  experiments  with  sand  and  with  clay,  and  compare  the 
results. 

Note  the  area  of  the  surface  of  a  potato.  Dip  it  into  water,  and, 
after  shaking  off  all  the  water  possible,  weigh  it.  Cut  it  in  two.  Is 
there  more  potato  than  there  was  before  ?  Has  it  now  more  surface? 
Dip  it  into  water,  shake  it  well,  and  weigh  it  again.  Cut  each  piece 
again  and  again,  noting  the  effect  on  the  area  of  the  surface,  and  on  the 
power  to  hold  water.     If  this  experiment  is  well  made,  it  will  prove  that : 

(rt)  The  smaller  the  pieces  are,  the  greater  the  surface  is  in  propor- 
tion to  the  mass. 

(/^)  The  greater  the  area  of  the  surface,  the  more  water  can  be  held. 

These  conclusions  are  as  true  of  the  soil  as  they  are  of  the  potato. 

KINDS   OF   SOIL,    HY    STRl^CTURE 

.  Sand  and  Gravel.  A  soil  of  which  as  much  as  40  per 
cent  is  made  of  particles  as  large  as  0.025  of  a  millimeter  in 
diameter  is  called  sand.     Sand  is  the  coarsest  agricultural 


22  PHILIPPfNE  AGRICULTURE 

soil.     Gravel  is  made  of  still  larger  particles,  but  it  is 
hardly  fit  for  plants  to  grow  in. 

Loam  and  Clay.  A  soil  of  which  between  20  per 
cent  and  40  per  cent  is  made  of  particles  as  large  as 
0.025  mm  in  diameter  is  called  loam.  Alluvial  soil  and 
mold  are  usually  loam. 


Fig.  23.    A  sandy  beach  on  the  coast  of  Luzon  near  Atimonan,  Tayabas 

Most  soils  of  which  less  than  20  per  cent  is  made  of 
particles  as  coarse  as  0.025  mm  in  diameter  are  clay. 

Take  half  a  kilogram  of  each  of  these  soils,  air-dry.  Let  each  stand 
overnight  in  water.  Carefully  pour  off  what  water  will  run  off,  and  then 
weigh  the  soils.  How  much  water  will  each  now  hold  ?  In  the  pre- 
vious experiment  with  sand  and  clay,  which  held  more  water  when 
air-dry  ? 

Soil  and  Water.  You  have  already  learned  that  the 
finest  soils  will  hold  the  most  water.  The  water  which 
sand  can  hold  is  less  than  25  per  cent  of  the  weight  of 
the  sand.     Loam  can  hold  25  per  cent  to  80  per  cent 


THE  SOIL  23 

of  its  weight  of  water;  and  clay  can  hold  more  than  80 
per  cent. 

When  a  soil  takes  up  as  much  as  80  per  cent  of  its 
weight  of  water,  the  water  often  completely  fills  the  spaces 
between  the  particles  of  soil,  driving  out  all  the  air.  The 
roots  of  most  plants  cannot  live  in  a  soil  without  air. 
Therefore,  clay  is  a  difficult  soil  for  plants  to  grow  in. 

What  is  the  origin  of  the  soil  in  your  garden?  What  is  its  structure 
(sand,  loam,  or  clay)  ?  Wliy  is  loam  usually  a  better  soil  than  clay  ? 
Why  better  than  sand?  At  what  time  of  year  is  sand  likely  to  be  best 
as  a  soil  ?     Do  you  know  any  wild  plants  that  grow  only  in  sand  ? 


CHAPTER    IV 

THE  FOOD  OF  PLANTS 

Need  of  Abundance  of  Food.  If  a  plant  has  no  food  or 
has  too  little  food,  it  starves  to  death,  just  as  we  should 
do.  But  the  least  quantity  of  food  which  will  keep  a 
plant  alive  is  not  enough  to  make  it  grow,  and  if  a  plant 
does  not  grow,  it  is  of  no  value  to  agriculture.  Nor  is 
mere  growth  all  that  is  needed.  Agriculture  is  not 
profitable  unless  the  plants  raised  grow  thriftily  and 
rapidly.  They  cannot  do  this  unless  they  have  a  great 
deal  more  food  than  would  keep  them  alive  and  let  them 
grow  a  very  little.  Hungry  plants,  like  hungry  men,  are 
poor  workers. 

Importance  of  Variety  of  Food.  Plants  are  also  like  ani- 
mals in  needing  several  kinds  of  food.  Men  need  to  eat 
some  salt;  if  they  did  not  get  salt,  by  itself  or  in  other 
food,  they  would  die.  But  if  they  got  salt  and  no  other 
food,  they  would  still  more  quickly  starve  to  death. 

Rice  is  the  principal  food  of  nearly  all  Filipinos,  but 
all  Filipinos  know  that  they  cannot  live  on  rice  alone. 
Plants  have  many  foods  which  are  so  absolutely  neces- 
sary that  if  any  one  is  entirely  wanting,  the  plant  must 
die. 

CHEMICAL   ELEMENTS 

Composition  of  Substances.  Nearly  all  the  substances 
we  see  in  the  world  are  combinations  of   simpler  sub- 

24 


THE  FOOD   OF  PLANTS  25 

stances.  Thus,  the  air  is  a  mixture  of  gases,  among 
which  are  oxygen,  nitrogen,  and  carbon  dioxid.  The 
first  two  of  these  are  simple  substances,  but  the  last  is 
itself  a  combination  of  oxygen  and  carbon.  Water  is  a 
combination  of  two  simple  gases,  oxygen  and  hydrogen. 
The  bodies  of  living  things  are  exceedingly  complex  com- 
binations and  mixtures. 

Elements.  Simple  substances,  that  is,  substances  which 
cannot  possibly  be  divided  so  as  to  give  parts  of  different 
kinds,  are  called  elements.  Iron,  gold,  silver,  and  copper 
are  simple  substances.  About  seventy  elements  make 
up  the  world,  and  everything  on  it,  as  well  as  the  sun, 
moon,  and  stars. 

Elements  Essential  to  Plants.  Of  the  seventy  elements, 
there  are  ten,  without  all  of  which  no  green  plant  can  live. 
These  are  carbon,  nitrogen,  hydrogen,  oxygen,  sulphur, 
phosphorus,  iron,  calcium,  magnesium,  and  potassium. 
Fungi  can  live  without  two  of  the  ten  needed  by  green 
plants — calcium  and  iron.  Besides  the  ten  elements  men- 
tioned, animals  must  also  have  chlorine  and  sodium. 

The  Organic  Elements.  Carbon,  nitrogen,  hydrogen,  and 
oxygen  make  up  a  very  large  part  of  all  living  things, 
and  are  therefore  often  called  the  organic  elements.  Be- 
side these  four,  sulphur  and  phosphorus  are  part  of  the 
living  substance  itself,  of  all  living  things.  The  uses  of 
the  individual  elements  are  not  well  known. 

Calcium,  Iron,  and  Potassium.  Without  calcium,  plants 
cannot  move  food  from  the  leaves  to  tlie  stem  and  roots; 
so  these  parts  may  starve  and  die,  though  the  leaves  may 


26  PHILIPPINE  AGRICULTURE 

be  full  of  starch.  Iron  is  a  part  of  the  chlorophyll;  so 
plants  without  iron  become  white,  and  die  because  they 
have  no  chlorophyll  to  absorb  the  light.  One  use  of 
potassium  is  to  keep  plants  stiff  and  fresh  by  helping 
them  to  hold  water;  wilted  plants  cannot  grow. 

How  Plants  obtain  the  Elements.  Plants  can  take  up 
none  of  these  elements,  except,  perhaps,  oxygen,  by  them- 
selves, but  must  receive  them  in  combinations.  The 
most  important  of  these  combinations  is  water,  from 
which  plants  obtain  hydrogen,  and  perhaps  oxygen. 
Carbon  is  obtained  from  the  carbon  dioxid  in  the  air. 

The  other  combinations  which  supply  plants  with  food 
are  called  salts.  The  salts  dissolve  in  water,  and  plants 
take  them  up  with  the  water  in  which  they  are  dissolved. 
Although  nitrogen  is  a  gas,  making  up  a  large  part  of 
the  air,  plants  cannot  use  it  as  a  food  in  this  form;  their 
nitrogen  must  be  in  the  form  of  salts,  dissolved  in  water, 
which  the  roots  can  get.  The  water  dissolves  all  these 
salts  from  the  soil.  Therefore,  soil  which  is  without  any 
of  them  cannot  support  plants. 

Elements  usually  Abundant.  Except,  rarely,  in  the  case 
of  iron,  without  which  the  younger  leaves  are  white  instead 
of  green,  it  is  impossible  to  know  from  a  plant's  appear- 
ance that  it  is  in  especial  need  of  any  one  food.  The 
only  way  to  determine  this  is  by  experiments,  as  described 
on  page  29.  But  most  of  the  necessary  elements  are  so 
abundant  everywhere  in  the  soil  that  plants  never  suffer 
for  them. 

Magnesium,  iron,  and  sulphur  are  not  present  in  large 


THE  FOOD   OF  PLANTS 


27 


quantities  in  most  soils,  but  plants  need  very  little  of 
these,  and  practically  always  have  sufficient.  Plants  need 
much  calcium,  but  most  soils  contain  much  of  it.  Sugar- 
cane is  the  only  important  Philippine  crop  likely  to  need 
more  calcium  than  is  present  in  the  soil. 

FERTILIZERS 

Calcium.     Substances  containing  plant  food,  which  are 
added  to  the  ground  to  make  it  more  productive,  are 


li'iiilizcd  and  oiu-   . .      i:.  .    ■;.     . 

Ltjxton  unci  Palmlands  Ivstate,  Ccyion 

called  fertilizers.  Ground  which  lias  been  producing 
sugar  for  many  years  is  often  very  weak  in  calcium.  If 
limestone  or  coral,  which  contain  much  calcium,  be 
crushed  and  ])ut  on  the  ground,  there  will  be  a  greater 
yield  of  sugar;   the  limestone  or  coral  is  a  fertilizer. 


28  PHILIPPINE  AGRICULTURE 

Nitrogen,  Phosphorus,  and  Potassium.  The  elements  of 
which  agricultural  soils  are  likely  to  contain  less  than 
plants  need  are  nitrogen,  phosphorus,  and  potassium. 
Therefore,  these  are  the  ones  which  should  be  used  in 
fertilizers.  Sometimes  all  three  of  these  are  needed,  but 
usually  some  one  is  needed  more  than  the  others.  Some 
fertilizers  contain  all  three,  and  other  foods  besides,  while 
other  fertilizers  contain  hardly  any  of  more  than  one. 

Decaying  vegetation  contains  all  the  foods  of  the 
plants  that  are  decaying,  and  is  therefore  sure  to  contain 
some  of  whatever  foods  are  most  needed  by  any  plant. 

Manures.  Stable  manure  also  contains  all  the  sub- 
stances needed  by  plants,  but  contains  more  nitrogen 
than  plants  do,  and  is  therefore  an  especially  good  fertili- 
zer for  general  use.  Poultry  manure  is  especially  rich  in 
phosphorus.  Because  it  is  very  soluble  in  water,  poultry 
manure  is  a  strong  fertilizer,  and  plants  are  sometimes 
injured  by  too  much  of  it. 

Bat  manure  and  bird  manure,  which  are  called  guano 
when  sold  as  fertilizers,  are  also  rich  in  phosphorus.  All 
of  these  manures  contain  considerable  potassium  also. 

Bones  and  Ashes.  Bones  and  fish-refuse  are  rich  in 
phosphorus.  Ashes  are  usually  rich  in  potassium,  which 
is  called  potash  when  used  as  a  fertilizer.  When  a  plant 
is  burned,  the  hydrogen,  carbon,  and  nitrogen  go  into 
the  air,  leaving  all  the  other  foods  in  the  ashes.  Ashes 
are  therefore  an  excellent  fertilizer  for  plants  which  are 
not  in  especial  need  of  nitrogen;  but  for  plants  which 
need  this  substance,  they  are  useless. 


THE  FOOD   OF  PLANTS 


29 


Bean  Plants  and  Nitrogen.  The  plants  of  the  bean  fam- 
ily have  small  knotty  and  wartlike  growths  on  their  roots. 
These  growths  are  called  tubercles,  and  are  caused  by 
very  small  germs,  or  bacteria.  The  tubercles  are  the 
homes  of  bacteria.  Through  the  activity  of  these  bac- 
teria, nitrogen  is  taken  from  the  air  and  stored  in  the 
tubercles.  This  is  called  "  fixing"  the  nitrogen.  When 
the  plants  die,  a  part  of  the  nitrogen 
fixed  in  their  tubercles  remains  in  the 
ground  and  enriches  it.  If  the  living 
tops  of  these  plants  are  plowed  under, 
the  soil  is  still  more  enriched  in  nitro- 
gen. Plants  used  in  this  way  are 
called  green  manures. 

Experimenting  with  Fertilizers.  As 
has  already  been  stated,  we  cannot  tell 
positively  from  the  appearance  of  a 
plant  what  fertilizer  it  most  wants ; 
but  we  can  learn  by  an  easy  and  cheap  y\c..  2 
experiment.  Suppose  that  we  have  a 
field  of  maize  which  is  well  cultivated  and  watered,  but 
still  produces  small  crops.  Some  fertilizer  is  almost  cer- 
tainly wanted;  but  we  might  lose  considemble  money 
by  treating  the  whole  field  with  a  fertilizer  not  especially 
needed. 

So  we  mark  off  plots  two  meters  square;  and  on  one 
plot  put  one  kilo  of  manure ;  on  another,  two  kilos;  on 
another,  one  half  kilo  of  ashes;  and  on  another,  one  kilo. 
Guano,  fish,  or  fish-refuse,  and  bean  or  peanut  tops  can 


Tubercles  on  the 
roots  of  a  bean  plant 


30 


PHILIPPINE  AGRICULTURE 


be  used  on  other  plots,  if  these  fertihzers  are  available. 
The   effects  of   the  fertilizers  on  these  little  plots  will 

show  what  one  it  will  be 

/"T^^i^V  ••'-v^'^  ^^^t  to  ^S6  ^"^  the  whole 

field.  Sometimes  a  mix- 
ture of  fertilizers  will  give 
good  results  at  the  least 
cost. 

The  Caingin  System. 
Since  plants  use  up  the 
food  in   soils,  it    becomes 


Fig.  26.     Maize  in  rich  soi 


Fig.  27.     Mai/.c  in  sand  or  gravel 


impossible  after  a  time  to  raise  good' crops,  without  ferti- 
lizers, on  ground  which  was  once  fertile.     The  caingin 


THE  FOOD   OF  PLANTS  31 

system  of  cultivation  consists  in  clearing  a  new  field 
whenever  the  old  one  ceases  to  yield  well.  This  system 
is  very  expensive  in  the  amount  of  labor  required  and 
very  bad  for  the  land. 

Rotation  of  Crops.  Different  crops  do  not  need  the 
different  foods  in  equal  amounts.  Therefore,  a  soil 
which  will  not  produce  more  good  crops  of  the  kind 
already  grown  may  still  prove  fertile,  if  a  different  crop 
is  planted.  It  is  good  agriculture,  when  working  with 
crops  which  do  not  live  many  years,  to  change  the  crop 
frequently  on  each  piece  of  ground.  A  regular  succes- 
sion of  crops  chosen  so  as  to  prevent  the  exhaustion  of 
any  particular  food  from  the  soil,  is  called  rotation  of 
crops. 

In  the  garden,  fertilize  one  half  of  a  plot  of  maize,  and  one  half  of  a 
plot  of  some  kind  of  bean,  with  manure,  putting  one  kilo  on  each  square 
meter.  Leave  the  other  half  of  each  plot  without  any  fertilizer.  Cul- 
tivate the  two  halves  in  exactly  the  same  way.  Note  the  difference  in 
the  amount  of  the  crop,  and  in  the  time  it  takes  it  to  mature.  This  ex- 
periment should  be  made  by  the  whole  class  rather  than  by  the  individ- 
ual students. 


CHAPTER   V 

PLANTS   AND   LIGHT 

Chlorophyll  and  Light.  We  have  already  learned  that 
the  essential  difference  between  plants  and  animals  is 
that  plants  can  form  their  own  organic  food  by  means 
of  the  light  absorbed  by  the  chlorophyll,  while  animals 
have  not  this  power.  Carbon  dioxid  and  water  are  the 
substances  from  which  the  plant  makes  its  food ;  and  the 
first  visible  product  of  these  in  the  plant  is  sugar  or 
starch. 

Value  of  Sugar  and  Starch.  Sugar  or  starch  is  used  in 
forming  all  the  different  parts  of  the  plant.  Without 
sugar  or  starch,  no  plant  can  grow,  or  even  live.  These 
products  are  equally  important  to  men,  for  it  is  to 
secure  one  of  these,  or  something  made  from  it,  that 
every  plant  is  grown  in  agriculture.  As  these  products 
are  formed  by  the  help  of  chlorophyll,  and  it  is  the  leaves 
—  the  green  parts  of  plants  —  that  contain  the  chloro- 
phyll, we  know  that  they  are  the  parts  where  the  sugar  or 
starch  is  formed. 

Light  Essential.  If  we  examine  any  cultivated  plant, 
we  see  that  its  leaves  are  arranged  so  as  to  receive  all 
the  light  possible.  Since  plants  can  form  sugar  (or  starch) 
only  in  the  light,  and  have  no  value  except  when  they 
produce  it,  and  in  general  are  worth  more,  the  more  of 
it  they  produce,  it  is  very  clear  that  good  crops  cannot 

32 


PLANTS  AND  LIGHT  33 

be  expected  from  plants  that  receive  less  light  than  they 
need. 

Amount  of  Light  Needed.  The  amount  of  light  needed 
depends  on  the  kind  of  plant.  All  of  our  cultivated 
plants  are  descended  from  uncultivated  plants,  and  re- 
tain most  of  the  characteristics  of  their  wild  ancestors. 
Some  of  them  demand  all  the  sunlight  possible.  Among 
these  are  the  coconut  and  the  plants  of  the  grass  family, 
such  as  rice,  maize,  and  cane.  Other  plants  grew  in 
forests  when  they  were  wild  plants,  and  do  not  usually 
thrive  in  very  strong  light.  The  reason  for  this  is  that 
their  leaves,  being  large,  cannot  always  be  supplied  with 
water;  therefore,  in  dry  or  windy  weather  they  become 
injured  by  dryness.  Plants  of  this  kind  must  usually  be 
protected  by  shade  trees. 

Shade-loving  Crops.  The  principal  shade-loving  crops 
of  the  Philippines  are  abaca,  cacao,  and  coffee.  It  is  only 
during  the  dry  season,  however,  that  too  much  light  can 
injure  these  plants,  and  in  places  where  there  is  no  dry 
season  they  ought  not  to  be  shaded.  In  such  places 
they  are  more  productive,  because  they  receive  more 
lio^ht,  and  so  can  c:row  faster  and  stronijer.  In  some 
parts  of  Mindanao,  abaca  produces  a  good  crop  when 
eighteen  months  old,  and  yields  iS  piculs  of  fiber  a  year 
from  one  thousand  plants.  In  places  where  abaca  must 
be  shaded,  two  years  is  an  early  yield,  and  i  2  piculs  a 
very  satisfactory  product.  Coffee  needs  to  be  shaded 
in  Batangas,  but  not  in  the  highlands  of  Henguet  and 
Lcpanto. 


34  PHILIPPINE  AGRICULTURE 

Tobacco  is  a  plant  which  can  well  use  all  the  light 
possible  while  it  is  young,  but  when  it  is  older  ought  to 
be  shaded  to  produce  the  finest  leaves.  It  is  the  only- 
plant  on  which  light  has  any  possible  bad  effect,  except 
that  of  causing  too  great  loss  of  water. 

Distance  between  Plants.  The  distance  by  which  plants 
ought  to  be  separated  is  determined  by  their  need  of  light. 
If  placed  too  near  together,  the  individual  plants  receive 
too  little  light,  and  usually  grow  tall  and  slender,  and  pro- 
duce little  or  no  fruit.  A  hektar  of  land  will  produce 
more  fruit  with  a  proper  number  of  plants  than  with  too 
many ;  so  the  added  plants  are  worse  than  useless. 

The  influence  of  light  on  the  production  of  fruit  is 
illustrated  by  the  coconuts  at  San  Ramon,  the  govern- 
ment farm  near  Zamboanga.  Trees  in  a  dense  grove 
bore  less  than  8  nuts  in  three  months;  in  a  more  open 
grove,  less  than  ii  ;  in  a  double  row  along  a  road,  22; 
in  a  single  row  by  a  slough,  27;  and  a  large  tree  stand- 
ing alone  bore  55.  This  is  at  the  rate  of  220  nuts  a  year 
for  the  solitary  tree,  probably  10  times  as  many  as  for 
the  trees  in  the  denser  grove. 

At  La  Carlota,  in  Negros,  25,000  plants  of  purple  cane 
on  one  hektar  of  land  produced  6  picos  more  of  sugar 
than  did  30,000  plants  on  an  equal  area. 

Weeds.  Of  course,  anything  which  robs  plants  of  light 
is  very  injurious.  One  of  the  ways  in  which  weeds  injure 
crops,  in  addition  to  taking  a  part  of  their  food  from  the 
soil,  is  by  taking  a  part  of  their  light.  There  are  no 
weeds  in  a  good  garden,  and  not  many  on  a  good  farm. 


CHAPTHR  VI 

PLANTS    AND    WATER 

Plants  need  water  for  three  purposes :  for  their  supply 
of  hydrogen,  for  use  as  building  material,  and  as  a  source 
of  mineral  food. 

Hydrogen.  They  get  hydrogen  from  it.  Plants  must 
have  hydrogen,  and  they  can  get  it  only  from  water. 
Next  to  carbon  and  oxygen,  which  plants  can  obtain 
from  the  air,  they  need  more  of  hydrogen  than  of  any 
other  food. 

Building  Material.  Plants  require  many  times  as  much 
water  for  building  material  as  for  food.  It  must  be  in 
the  cell-walls;  in  the  living  substance,  the  protoj)lasm  ; 
and  in  the  vacuoles,  which  are  the  cavities  inclosed  by 
the  protoplasm. 

The  water  in  the  walls  makes  it  possible  for  the  .sub- 
stances dissolved  in  the  water  to  pass  through  the  walls; 
if  the  walls  were  dry,  the  sugar  formed  in  the  leaves 
could  not  pass  to  other  ])arts  of  the  plant. 

The  activity  of  the  i;rot()})lasm  dei)en{ls  on  the  water 
in  it.  .Seeds  are  inactive,  because  they  contain  little 
water;  when  they  are  wet,  they  become  active  and 
germinate. 

The  water  in  the  vacuole^  kee|)s  the  soft  parts  of 
plants,  such  as  leaves  and  the  tips  of  stems  and    roots, 

35 


36  PHILIPPINE  AGRICULTURE 

fresh  and  in  the  proper  form.  If  the  vacuoles  lose  much 
water,  the  plant  wilts.     Wilted  plants  cannot  grow. 

Mineral  Food.  Plants  need  water  for  the  mineral  food 
dissolved  in  it.  Boil  water  from  a  well  in  a  kettle  for  a 
long  time,  and  you  will  find  a  lining  or  sediment  in  the 
kettle ;  this  is  made  of  salts  which  were  in  the  water,  and 
were  left  behind  when  the  water  evaporated.  Water 
evaporates  from  the  leaves  of  plants,  and  the  substances 
dissolved  in  the  water  are  left  behind. 

Transpiration.  Evaporation  from  living  plants  is  called 
transpiration.  The  water  transpired  by  plants  is  many 
times  as  much  as  the  water  needed  for  building  material. 
Except  for  their  transpiration,  plants  would  be  practically 
unable  to  get  their  mineral  food,  however  much  of  it 
there  might  be  in  the  ground. 

Transpiration  takes  place  almost  entirely  from  the 
leaves.  If  it  is  too  active,  the  plants  wilt,  and  wilted 
plants  can  neither  grow  nor  make  their  food.  If  wilted 
plants  continue  to  lose  water  too  rapidly,  they  die.  But 
so  long  as  growing  plants  are  able  to  get  water  as  rapidly 
as  they  lose  it,  and  so  prevent  wilting,  the  most  rapid 
transpiration  is  the  best ;  because  the  more  rapid  is  the 
transpiration,  the  more  mineral  food  is  obtained.  Sun- 
light, wind,  dry  air,  and  warmth  help  transpiration.  On 
the  other  hand,  darkness,  moist  air,  still  air,  and  cold 
hinder  transpiration. 

The  Transpiration  Stream.  The  water  transpired  by  the 
green,  soft  parts  of  the  leaves  reaches  them  through  the 
veins  and  ribs.     It  comes  to  these  through  the  petiole 


PLANTS  AND    WATER 


37 


from  the  stem.  The  stem  gets  it  from  the  big  roots  and 
these  from  their  branch  roots,  and  these  finally  from  the 
young,  newly  grown  parts  of  the  finest  roots.  In  the 
roots,  stems,  branches,  petioles,  and  veins  the  water 
is  always  moving  upward  in  the  wood. 
This  current  of  water  is  called  the 
transpiration  stream.  The  wood  is  a 
strand  in  the  axis  of  each  root.  The 
water  reaches  the  wood  through  the 
fleshy  part  of  the  root,  from  the  epider- 
mis, or  surface  layer. 

Cut  off  a  leafy  branch  or  stem  and  put  it  in  red 
ink.  In  what  part  (hark,  wood,  or  pithj  of  the 
stem  does  the  ink  rise?  Can  you  prove  by  this 
experiment  that  water  moves  tiirough  the  veins 
of  the  leaves?  How  rapidly  does  water  rise  in 
the  stem?  This  experiment  will  succeed  best  if 
the  stem  is  cut  under  water,  and  put  into  the  ink 
without  letting  it  get  at  all  ilry. 

Find  the  woody  strand,  and  the  soft  ])art 
around  it,  in  a  coconut  root.  Old  roots  of  coco- 
nut have  also  a  hard  shell,  the  hypodermis,  which 
forms  just  inside  the  very  thin  epidermis,  and  kills 
the  latter.  Where  there  is  a  hard  hyiKxlermis,  water  cannot  be  ab- 
sorbed ;    there  is  no  hypodermis  near  the  tip  of  the  root. 

If  coconut  roots  are  not  available,  use  bctelnut. 

WATKR    IN    THK    SOIL 

Plants  sometimes  have  so  much  water  that  it  injures 
them,  and  sometimes  thev  suffer  because  they  cannot 
get  enough.  It  is  generally  possible  for  us  to  remove 
some  water  if  there  is  too  much  in  the  soil,  and  to  fur- 

46391 


l'i<;.  28.    Stfiii  placed 
in  red  ink 


38 


PHILIPPINE  AGRICULTURE 


nish  more  if  there  is  too  little.  Agricultural  plants  are 
damaged  more  by  dryness  than  in  all  other  ways  together. 
Providing  for  their  proper  supply  of  water,  if  they  have 
too  little,  is  therefore  the  farmer's  most  important  single 
task. 

Effect  of  too  much  "Water.  We  have  already  learned,  in  the 
chapter  on  the  soil,  that  the  soil  is  made  of  fine  particles, 
each  of  which  is  surrounded  by  a  very  thin  film  of  water. 
Between  these  particles,  with  their  films  of  water,  the  soil 

also  contains  air.  Too  much 
water  in  the  soil  displaces 
the  air.  The  roots  of  most 
plants  must  breathe  free  air, 
just  as  we  must,  and  they 
die  if  there  is  no  free  air  in 
the  ground,  just  as  men 
drown  if  they  are  too  long 
under  water.  The  only 
Philippine  agricultural 
plants  which  can  live  in  soil 
full  of  water  are  rice  and 
gabi.  Cacao  also  can  live 
longer  than  most  plants  without  free  air  in  the  soil.  If 
soil  is  too  wet,  it  is  usually  easy  to  drain  it  by  digging 
ditches  for  the  water  to  run  out.  Ground  which  is 
always  low  and  wet  should  be  drained  by  permanent 
canals.  Narrow,  temporary  ditches,  quickly  made  and 
easy  to  fill  up,  often  make  it  possible  to  use  during  the 
rainy  season  gardens  otherwise  too  wet  for  any  use. 


Fig,  29.    Particles  of  soil  (a)  surrounded  by 
air  {b)  and  water  (c) 


PLANTS  AND    WATER 


39 


ABSORPTION    OF  WATER 

Roots.  Since  the  water  in  good  soils  is  all  in  the  mem- 
branes surrounding  the  soil  particles,  it  is  the  water  in 
these  membranes  which  the  roots  must  be  able  to  take 
up.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  they  are  never  able  to  take  it 
all,  but  die  from  dryness  while  the  soil  still  holds  some 
water.  To  be  able  to  take  the  water 
from  the  soil  particles,  the  roots  of 
the  plants  must  come  into  contact 
with  these  particles  as  completely 
as  possible.  And  since  it  is  ob- 
viously the  surface  of  roots  which 
can  absorb  water,  they  need  to  have 
a  great  deal  of  surface.  To  get  a 
great  surface,  and  to  reach  all  the 
soil  particles  j^ossible,  most  j^lants 
have  a  great  number  of  nne  roots. 
By  actual  measurement,  the  total 
length  of  the  roots  of  one  scjuash 
plant  was  twenty-five  kilometers.  The  coconut  is  nota- 
ble for  having  few  fine  roots;  yet  one  tree  may  have 
more  than  six  hundred  thousand  absorbing  tij)s. 

Root  Hairs.  Hut  even  the  finest  roots  of  j)lants  are 
usually  not  fine  enough  to  keep  j)lants  well  supplied 
with  water,  and  so  the  roots  ha\e  special  absorbing 
structures,  the  root  hairs.  These  are  tubular  outgrowths, 
each  from  a  single  epidermal  cell.  Thev  have  exceed- 
ingly thin  walls,  and  so  can  giow  into  the  finest  chinks 


l-K;.  30.  Root  li.iirs  in 
lonlact  with  particles 
ot     M>il 


40  PHILIPPINE  AGRICULTURE 

between  the  soil  particles,  and  fit  into  their  smallest  un- 
evennesses,  instead  of  pushing  even  the  smallest  particles 
aside,  as  the  roots  do  when  they  grow  through  the  soil. 
This  makes  them  better  fitted  than  the  finest  roots  to 
take  the  films  of  water  away  from  the  particles  of  the 
soil.  They  also  increase  the  absorbing  area  of  the  roots; 
the  hairs  give  the  roots  of  some  plants  as  much  as  twelve 
times  the  absorbing  surface  the  roots  would  have  without 
them.  The  hairs  are  formed  on  the  youngest  parts  that 
have  stopped  growing.  They  are  short-lived,  and  so  are 
not  found  on  old  roots. 

Wash  the  soil  very  carefully  from  the  roots  of  a  young  maize  plant 
with  roots  not  more  than  lo  cm  long.  The  roots  will  be  seen  to  have  a 
felty  covering  made  of  the  root  hairs.  A  single  root  hair  is  often  too 
small  to  be  seen  without  a  microscope. 

Because  the  root  hairs  are  so  delicate,  it  is  usually  im- 
possible to  transplant  a  plant  without  breaking  most  of 
them.  When  they  are  broken,  the  plant  is  left  without 
its  absorbing  structures,  and  even  if  the  ground  be  very 
wet,  the  plant  is  likely  to  die  promptly  for' want  of  water 
if  it  transpires  actively.  The  transpiration  of  transplanted 
trees  is  often  prevented  by  cutting  off  a  large  part  of  the 
leaves  or  branches.  When  garden  plants  are  trans- 
planted they  must  be  shaded,  if  the  sun  shines.  Within 
a  day  or  two  they  provide  themselves  with  new  root  hairs, 
and  the  shade  may  be  removed.  Because  the  air  is  most 
moist  at  night,  the  best  time  of  day  for  transplanting  is 
late  in  the  afternoon.  Plants  should  be  watered  before 
and  after  transplanting. 


PLANTS  AND    WATER 


41 


Kic.  31.    Soil  very  badly  cracked 


COxNSERVATION   OF   THE   SOIL  WATER 

Need  of  Conservation.  In  most  parts  of  the  Philippines 
the  year  is  made  up  of  a  rainy  season  and  a  dry  season. 
As  much  rain  falls  in  a  few  months  as  plants  need  during 
the  year;  and  yet  there  are  months  during  which  they 
suffer  from  drought.  It  is  the 
work  of  the  good  farmer  to 
make  the  water  last  as  long 
as  possible.  We  have  already 
learned  that  the  finer  the  soil 
particles  are,  the  more  water 
the  soil  will  hold.  Good  cul- 
tivation breaks  up  the  soil  in- 
to finer  bits,  and  so  makes  it 

hold  more  water.  In  uniformly  fine  soil,  water  moves 
from  one  part  to  another  much  more  readily  than  in 
coarse  or  irregular  soil. 

Effect  of  Careful  Cultivation.  There  is  everywhere,  and 
in  the  dryest  seasons,  wAter  enough  a  short  distance  be- 
low the  sui-face  of  the  ground ;  but  the  hardness  and 
coarseness  of  the  ground  keep  the  roots  from  going  very 
deep,  and  keep  the  water  from  mo\'ing  upward.  If  the 
soil  is  cultivated  and  kept  soft  and  fine  down  to  where 
it  is  always  moist,  the  water  will  constantly  move  up- 
ward to  take  the  place  of  what  is  evaporated  or  taken  up 
by  plants.  Therefore,  deep  cultivation  lets  j)lants  grow 
in  places  where  the  ground  would  be  too  dry  without  it. 
In    Manila,  lettuce  will  grow   well    in    P'ebruary  in   fine 


42  PHILIPPINE  AGRICULTURE 

ground  cultivated  20  cm  deep,  if  irrigated  once  in  two 
weeks;  better  than  in  ground  cultivated  10  cm  deep, 
where   it   is  watered   every  other  day. 

At  the  Spanish  experiment  station  in  Albay,  it  was 
found  that  during  the  dry  season  abaca  grew  better  on 
land  prepared  with  an  American  plow  before  the  abaca 
was  planted  than  it  did  where  the  Filipino  plow  had 
been  used. 

Although  clay  holds  more  water  than  sand  does,  it 
usually  dries  deeper  in  dry  weather,  both  because  it  be- 
comes hard  in  such  large  blocks  that  the  water  cannot 
move  upward  through  it,  and  because  it  cracks  badly. 

Mulching.  The  water  which  is  in  the  soil  when  the  dry 
season  begins  is  lost  by  evaporation,  either  from  the  sur- 
face of  the  soil,  or  through  plants.  If  all  weeds  are 
killed,  the  loss  of  water  by  their  transpiration  is  pre- 
vented. The  evaporation  from  the  ground  itself  is  made 
the  least  possible  by  keeping  the  surface  smooth  and 
even,  and  very  fine.  This  surface  is  sometimes  called  a 
"mulch."  It  is  dry,  and  full  of' air;  but  the  air  is  quiet, 
and  does  not  move  rapidly  when  the  wind  blows,  as  the 
air  does  in  a  coarse,  or  rough,  or  cracked  surface.  In 
the  latter  soils  the  air  is  constantly  moving  in  and  out, 
and  carrying  out  a  great  deal  of  moisture.  Therefore, 
cultivation,  by  making  the  soil  fine,  not  only  makes  it  re- 
ceive water  from  deep  in  the  ground,  but  prevents  the 
loss  of  this  water  from  the  surface.  At  the  San  Ramon 
farm,  a  part  of  the  abaca,  which  was  planted  in  Spanish 
times,  is  no  longer  in  rows,  and  so  cannot  be  cultivated 


PLANTS  AND    WATER 


43 


with  cattle.  In  dry  seasons  this  part  is  injured  by 
drought,  and  finally  becomes  entirely  unproductive  a 
month  sooner  than  does  the  cultivated  abaca  on  poorer 


ground. 


IRRIGATION 


Various  Methods.     In    spite    of    excellent    cultivation, 
some  lands  are  so  dry,  and  some  crops  so  dependent  on 


Fk;.  32.     Arid  land  in  wobtcrn  America  before  irrij^.iiioii 

water,  that  their  profitable  cultivation  depends  on  irriga- 
tion. There  are  various  ways  of  putting  water  on  land : 
by  hand,  by  windmills,  by  engines,  and  by  gravity. 
Human  labor  can  be  used  only  where  a  valuable  crop 
can  be  raised  on  a  little  ground,  especially  in  gardens. 
In  these,  the  water  should  be  put  on  the  ground  in  the 
late  afternoon.  Windmills,  too,  are  used  only  for  irriga- 
tion on  a  small  scale,  raising  crops  so  valuable  that  a 
man  needs  but  little  land.  Steam  pumj)sare  used  in  the 
United  States  to  irrigate  irreat   rice  fields ;   but  in   the 


44 


PHILIPPINE  AGRICULTURE 


Fig.  33.    The  same  land  shown  in  Figure  32  after  irrigation 


Philippines  they  are  used  only  near  cities,  and  are  not 
likely  to  come  into  general  use. 

Gravity.  By  far  the  cheapest  irrigation  is  usually  by 
gravity  alone.  The  water  is  taken  from  a  creek  or  river 
at  some  point  high  enough  so  that  it  will  run  through  a 
ditch  or  canal  to  the  land  to  be  irrigated.  The  canal 
should  be  kept  on  the  highest  ground  possible,  so  as  to 
have  as  much  land  as  possible  below  it.  If  much  land  is 
irrigated,  branch  ditches  run  from  the  main  canal,  and 
are  cut  off  by  gates  which  can  be  opened  and  shut.  In 
this  way  the  water  is  turned  into  different  fields  at  differ- 
ent times.     It  is  better  to  irrigate  fields  thoroughly  and 


PLANTS  AND   WATER 


45 


not  often,  than  to  give  them  a  little  water  frequently.  If 
possible,  land  should  be  cultivated  as  soon  after  it  is 
irrigated  as  it  is  dry  enough.  After  the  ditches  are  dug 
and  the  gates  are  made,  the  only  expense  of  this  kind  of 
irrigation  is  keeping  the  system  in  order.  This  is  least 
expensive  if  the  ditches  are  straight,  and  the  w^ater  flows 
slowly.  The  very  numerous  rapidly  falling  streams 
make  this  kind  of  irrigation  feasible  and  cheap  on 
most  of  the  good  agricultural  land  in  the  Philippines. 


FlU.  34.     Irrigation  ditch  and  tlunic  in  Lcpaniu-Boiuoc 


CHAPTER   VII 

CLIMATE  AND  AGRICULTURE 

The  possibility  of  any  agriculture,  and  the  kinds  of 
plants  which  can  be  raised,  depend  upon  the  climate. 
The  chief  factors  of  the  climate  are  moisture  and  tem- 
perature. In  some  places,  the  wind  also  is  important ;  all 
parts  of  the  Philippines  north  of  Mindanao  are  subject  to 
typhoons,  which  are  sometimes  exceedingly  destructive 
to  crops. 

Uniform  Temperature.  The  torrid  zone  is  characterized 
by  a  rather  high  and  very  uniform  temperature,  and 
heavy  rainfall.  Nearest  to  the  equator,  the  temperature 
is  in  general  most  uniform,  and  the  rainfall  heaviest. 
The  difference  between  the  average  temperatures  of  the 
coldest  month  and  the  hottest  month  of  some  Philippine 
towns  is : 

Tagbilaran,  2.1°  Atimonan,  4.3° 

Davao,  2.2°  Baguio,  4.5° 

Cebu,  2.7°  Surigao,  4.6° 

Kapis,  2.7°  Tarlac,  5.2° 

Manila,  3.5°  Aparri,  6.5° 

Iloilo,  T,.8°  Batan  Islands,  7.0° 

The  least  known  difference  in  the  world  is  at  Equator- 

ville,  on  the  Congo  River,  where  it  is  1.2°.    At  Hongkong 

it  is  13.4°. 

46 


CLIMATE  AND  AGRICULTURE  47 

It  is  the  uniform  temperature,  not  a  high  one,  which 
characterizes  lands  close  to  the  equator.  The  average 
yearly  temperature  is  greater  15°  north,  about  the  lati- 
tude of  Manila,  where  it  is  26.3°,  than  on  the  equator 
itself,  where  it  is  25.9°.  It  must  be  because  the  tem- 
perature is  not  suflFiciently  uniform,  that  some  plants, 
such  as  the  mangosteen  and  durian,  which  are  usually 
regarded  as  the  two  most  delicious  tropical  fruits,  do 
not  grow  as  far  north  as  Panay.  Islands  have  usually  a 
more  uniform  temperature  than  continental  places. 

The  average  temperature  for  a  month  is  found  by  add- 
ing the  temperatures  of  all  the  days,  and  dividing  the  sum 
by  the  number  of  days. 

Advantages  of  the  Tropics.  No  plant  of  agricultural 
value  can  grow  and  produce  crops  near  the  freezing 
point  of  water  (0°),  and  many  of  them  are  killed  by 
frost.  For  this  reason,  crops  do  not  grow  during  the 
winter,  where  there  is  a  winter;  and  there  are  only  about 
four  months  during  which  the  plants  of  temperate  coun- 
tries grow  really  actively.  P^rosts  probably  never  occur 
in  the  Philippines  except  in  the  high  mountains  of 
northern  Luzon.  So  far  as  the  temperature  is  con- 
cerned, it  should  be  {possible  to  raise  in  the  Philippines 
two  or  more  crops  in  a  year,  of  most  plants  of  temperate 
lands. 

Light.  The  advantage  of  tropical  countries  in  agricul- 
ture is  even  greater  than  the  temperature  shows;  for 
they  also  receive  more  light,  and  so  plants  can  form 
more  organic  food.       The  light  at  l\'\ra.  in   Brazil,  and  at 


48  PHILIPPINE  AGRICULTURE 

Kew,  near  London,  was  measured  and  compared  in  1866. 
In  April  there  was  20  times  as  much  light  at  Para  as  at 
Kew,  and  in  August  3.3  times  as  much. 

Rainfall  Important.  The  amount  of  rainfall,  and  its 
distribution  throughout  the  year,  are  more  important 
than  the  temperature  in  determining  what  crops  can 
profitably  be  grown  in  any  place.  A  favorable  temper- 
ature is  plainly  of  no  service  where  the  climate  is  too  dry 
to  let  plants  thrive.  Even  without  rain,  a  moist  atmos- 
phere is  an  advantage  to  plants. 

Maguey  and  piiia  are  the  only  Philippine  crops  which 
are  very  productive  where  there  is  not  a  heavy  rainfall 
fairly  evenly  distributed  through  all  the  months.  Other 
crops  can  endure  a  shorter  dry  season,  and  most  of  them 
can  be  kept  in  excellent  condition  if  failure  of  rain  is 
made  up  by  irrigation.  Abaca  is  injured  by  even  a  brief 
drought,  but  coconuts  would  probably  thrive  best  with 
no  rain  at  all,  if  properly  irrigated.  Sugar,  rice,  and 
maize  want  dryness  as  they  mature. 

Rainfall  in  the  Philippines.  There  are  great  local  dif- 
ferences, that  is,  differences  between  places  near  together, 
in  the  rainfall  in  the  Philippines,  and  these  determine 
what  crops  can  be  raised  in  the  various  sections.  The 
rainfall  at  different  places  from  September,  1902,  through 
August,  1903,  was  as  follows,  the  figures  being  the 
number  of  millimeters : 

Masinlok,  3862.9  Balanga,  1 908.1 

Borongan,  3452.7         San  Fernando  de  Union,  1869.7 

Caraga,  3165.2  Surigao,  1 781.5 


CLIMATE  AND  AGRICULTURE 


49 


126' 


BATAN 

IS, 

< 

BABUYAN 

IS 

Under  100  cm 

100  to  150  cm  [      -] 


150  to  200  cm 


_200to250cm:Vi^>;-v-; 


250  to  300  cm  ?!i^ 
Over  300  cm  ^^^ 


MAP  OF  THE 

Phiuppine  islands 

SHOWING 

MEAN  ANNUALR^NFAOjU*. 

SCAkE  .     '        ' 

t y. . .  .r. . ,  .r, j"-    *    . 


.CATANOUANES 


aWj  TAWI 


IZ?*  EaM  of  Gracnwich     Ic4' 


l?6' 


Fig.  35.     Rainfall  map 


50 


PHILIPPINE  A  CRrCUL  TURE 


Candon,  1780.9 
Porak,  1757.9 
Aparri,  171  7.8 
Dapitan,  1700.6 
Ormok,  1699.5 
Marilao,  1699.3 
Corregidor,  1 673.1 
Cotabato,  1633.8 
Tarlac,  1480.5 
Jolo,  1438.4 
San  Isidro,  1354.4 
Tuburan,  1049.  i 
Nueva  Caceres,  1047 
Maasin,  976.2 


Baler,  3008.4 

Baguio,  2862.3 

Kapis,  2788.7 

Olongapo,  2317.8 

Tagbilaran,  2286 

Vigan,  2207.9 

Atimonan,  2197.3 

Dagupan,  2066.3 

Bolinao,  2019.7 

Legaspi,  1955 

Iloilo,  1925 

Manila,  1332.3 

Davao,  1 310.2 

Cuyo,  1293.9 

San  Jose  de  Buenavista,  1258.9  Cebu,  916.6 

Cavite,  1 102.6  .  Arayat,  761.7 

Isabela  de  Basilan,  1 100.5  Zamboanga,  413.4 

These  figures  give  a  fair  idea  of  the  relative  rainfall  in 
different  parts  of  the  Islands.  However,  there  is  a  very 
considerable  variation  from  year  to  year.  In  Manila,  the 
average,  from  1865  to  1902,  was  1938.3  mm;  the  least 
being  906.5  mm  in  1865,  and  the  greatest,  2978.8  mm  in 
1867. 

The  rainfall  can  be  measured  roughly  in  a  can  fastened  on  top  of  a 
post  in  an  open  yard.  It  must  be  measured  and  the  can  emptied 
immediately  after  each  shower.  In  some  places  vessels  to  measure  the 
rainfall  more  accurately  can  be  obtained  from  the  Weather  Bureau. 

Dry  Seasons.  There  is  likely  to  be  a  destructively  dry 
season,  in  any  year,  on  the  west  coast  of  the  Zamboanga 


CLIMATE  AND  AGRICULTURE 


51 


Peninsula,  in  Antique,  in  western  Mindoro,  and  from  Ba- 
tangas  to  Ilocos  Norte.  In  those  parts  of  the  Islands  bor- 
dering on  the  Pacific  Ocean,  or  not  separated  from  it  by 
mountains,  there  is  very  rarely  an  injuriously  dry  season. 
In  Manila,  on  the  average,  80  per  cent  of  the  year's  rain 
falls  in  the  five  months  from  June  to  October. 

Altitude  and  Rainfall.  With  altitude,  that  is,  height 
above  the  sea,  the  temperature  decreases,  and  the  rainfall 
and  the  moisture  in  the  air  increase.  The  effect  of  the 
rainfall  is  seen  by  comparing  that  at  a  station  of  the 
Forestry  Bureau  on  Mt.  Mariveles,  at  640  meters  alti- 
tude, with  that  in  Manila.  The  average  rainfall  at  the 
foot  of  the  mountain  is  practically  the  same  as  that  in 
Manila. 


Ar  640  Mkikks 

At  Manila 

P^ebruary,  1905 

2.2  mm 

2.8  mm 

March,  1905 

6.8  mm 

I.I  mm 

April,  1905   .     . 

273.3  mm 

173.8  mm 

May,  1905    .     . 

70.1  mm 

24.0  mm 

June,  1905    .     : 

1034.3  mm 

346.2  mm 

July,  1905      .     . 

1 40 1. 6  mm 

594.4  mm 

August,  1905    . 

294,6  mm 

212.8  mm 

September,  1905 

709.2  mm 

239.6  mm 

Total,  S  months 

3792.1  mm 

1594.7  mm 

Altitude  and  Agriculture.      Because  of  the  altitude,  cof- 
fee  has  been   very  profitable    in   Lipa  and    /Mfonso,   but 


52  PHILIPPINE  AGRICULTURE 

never  in  Batangas  or  Naik.  Coconuts  do  not  usually 
thrive  above  300  meters  altitude.  With  the  Igorots  liv- 
ing above  1600  meters,  millet  takes  the  place  of  rice. 
The  best  camotes  in  the  Islands  ^row  at  an  altitude  of 
more  that  iioo  meters;  and  the  best  cabbages,  above 
2100  meters. 

Draw  an  outline  map  of  the  Philippines,  putting  in  the  places  whose 
rainfall  is  stated  in  this  chapter,  and  put  in  the  rainfall  of  each. 

Will  abaca  thrive  better  in  Zambales  or  in  Albay  ?     Why  ? 

Measure  the  rainftiU  in  the  school  garden  for  a  month,  and  then  com- 
pute the  average  rainfall  for  that  month. 


CHAPTER  VIII 


THE   LIVING  ENEMIES  OF  CROPS 

Kinds  of  Plant  Enemies.  Almost  all  of  the  living 
enemies  of  plants  are  insects  or  fungi.  Besides  these 
there  are  birds  which  attack  various  crops,  especially 
rice ;  bats,  which  eat  fruit ;  and  wild  hogs  and  monkeys. 
The  means  of  fighting  these  enemies  are  well  known, 
and  do  not  need  to  be  described  here.  There  are  also  a 
few  diseases  caused  by  bacteria,  which  have  never  been 
studied  at  all  in  the  Phil-  \ 
ippines ;  and  a  few  dis-  \v^ 
eases  caused  by  very 
minute  worms.  These 
live  in  the  ground  in 
some   localities    and    are  fh;.  36.   Locust 

very  hard  to  kill.  Where  a  plant  has  a  disease  caused 
by  something  that  lives  in  the  ground,  it  is  usually  best 
not  to  try  to  grow  the  plant.  As  a  rule,  each  of  the 
living  things  which  cause  disease  attacks  a  certain  kind 
of  plants,  and  is  harmless  to  all  others. 

INSECT   ENEMIES 

Locusts.  The  insect  enemies  of  plants  are  numerous 
and  some  of  them  are  very  destructive.  Tiie  most  de- 
structive of  all  in  the  Philippines  is  the  locust.     There 

53 


54 


PHILIPPINE  AGRICULTURE 


is  hardly  any  part  of  the  Islands  which  is  not  sometimes 
visited  by  these  insects,  in  swarms.  They  eat  the  leaves 
of  plants,  and  so  kill  many  crops,  but  are  especial  enemies 
of  rice. 

Wood  Borers  and  Maize  Moth.     An  insect  belonging  to 
the  group  of  wood  borers,  which  make  holes  in  the  wood 


Fig.  2,7 •     Four  stages  in  the  complete  metamorphosis  of  the  coconut  beetle;     a,  egg; 
b,  larva ;  c,  pupa ;  d,  adult 

of  living  trees,  has  done  great  injury  to  the  coffee  at 
Lipa;  it  is  called  bagombong.  The  uang,  or  coconut 
beetle,  makes  the  great  holes  often  seen  in  the  upper 
part  of  coconut  trunks.  It  is  also  found  in  cane  waste, 
and  other  decaying  vegetation,  and  in  manure.  Unless 
all  cane  waste  is  burned  or  buried,  coconuts  and  cane 
should  not  be  planted  together.  About  Manila  and  in 
some  other  parts  of  these  islands  there  is  a  moth  which 
does  great  injury  to  maize. 

Larva  the  Destructive  Stage.  The  maize  moth,  and 
the  uang  and  bagombong,  are  all  insects  having  a 
complete  metamorphosis;  that  is,  each  insect,  in  the 
course   of   its    life,  goes    through    four   stages,  namely: 


THE  LIVING  ENEMIES  OF  CROPS 


55 


{d)  the  ^^^,  {b)  the  larva,  {c)  the  pupa  or  cocoon,  and  {d) 
the  imago,  or  adult  stage.  The  larva,  which  looks  like  a 
worm  rather  than  like  an  insect,  is  the  most  destructive 
stage.  Except  the  fiber  plants,  there  is  no  crop  in  the 
Philippines  which  is  not  sometimes  seriously  damaged 
by  insect  enemies. 

HOW   INSECTS   ARE    FOUGHT 

Various  Methods  Used.     There  are  many  ways  of  fight- 
ing insects.     The  uang,  for  instance,  is  fought  by  many 


lif/ts 


Fli;.  38.     Catchinir  ;i  swarm  uf  locusts  with  a  net  nca 


Fli;.  38.     Catchinj;  a  swarm  uf  locusts  with  a  net  near  Manila 

different  means;  such  as,  pulling  him  out  with  a  bent 
pin,  and  plugging  his  hole  with  manure.  Locusts  are 
fought  by  smoke,  by  great  nets,  by  driving  them  into 
ditches  where  they  can  be  killed,  and  in  other  ways. 
The    Bureau    of    Science   has   tried    to    brinsx    into    the 


56 


PHILIPPINE  AGRICULTURE 


Islands  a  fungus  which  it  is  hoped  will  kill  them. 
Several  years  ago  a  man  in  Negros  got  some  of  this 
fungus  from  Africa,  and  killed  great  swarms  of  locusts 
within  a  few  days.  A  common  way  of  killing  night- 
flying  insects,  such  as  the  maize  moth,  is  to  put  lamps  in 
the  field,  with  a  pan  of  kerosene  under  each.  The  in- 
sects are  attracted  to  the  light, 
and  fly  against  it,  and  then 
fall  into  the  kerosene.  This 
kills  all  night-flying  insects, 
some  of  which  are  useful;  but 
in  fields  where  the  harmful 
insects  are  numerous  a  great 
many  more  of  them  are  caught 
than  of  the  useful  insects. 

Killing  by  Poisons.  Some 
substances  are  disagreeable  or 
poisonous  to  animals  but  not 
harmful  to  plants.  Tobacco 
juice  and  arsenic  are  such  substances.  If  tobacco  leaves 
are  boiled  in  a  little  water,  so  as  to  make  a  strong  juice, 
and  plants  or  leaves  are  washed  with  this  juice,  insects 
will  keep  away  from  them.  If  arsenic  is  put  on  leaves, 
insects  which  eat  them  will  die.  It  would  cost  too 
much  to  put  these  poisons  on  a  field  crop,  like  rice ; 
but  it  often  pays  to  use  them  on  the  more  valuable  gar- 
den and  orchard  crops.  They  are  put  on  by  spraying. 
The  poison  most  generally  used  is  Paris  green,  which 
contains  copper  and  arsenic.     Paris  green  can  be  bought 


Fig,  39.    Spraying  machine 


THE  LIVING  ENEMIES  OF  CROPS  57 

of  any  druggist.  To  use  it,  dissolve  it  in  water,  putting 
10  grams  of  Paris  green  and  10  grams  of  lime  in  6  liters 
of  water.  It  should  be  remembered  that  a  poison  for 
insects  is  usually  poisonous  for  persons.  In  handling 
Paris  green  be  careful  not  to  get  it  on  your  hands  and 
in  this  way  get  it  into  your  mouth.  However,  there 
is  one  substance,  buhac,  or  Persian  insect  powder,  which 
gets  rid  of  insects  quickly,  and  which  is  perfectly  safe  to 
use.  It  is  made  from  a  plant  called  buhac,  which  could 
be  cultivated  in  the   Philippines. 

Kerosene  Emulsion.  It  is  impossible  to  poison  the 
scale  insects  and  other  sucking  insects.  They  do  not 
eat  leaves,  but  push  a  sucking  tube  inside  the  leaf,  and 
suck  the  juice  out.  But  they  can  be  easily  killed  by 
spraying  over  them  some  kerosene  emulsion.  To  make 
this,  mix  2  liters  of  kerosene  with  10  liters  of  water,  and 
200  grams  of  soap ;  mix  these  away  from  the  fire  while 
the  water  is  boiling  hot,  and  beat  or  stir  the  mixture  until 
the  water  and  oil  do  not  se})arate.  It  is  sometimes 
necessary  to  re-heat  the  mixture  because  it  cools  before 
it  is  perfectly  mixed.  Blowing  air  into  it  with  the  spray- 
ing pump  is  an  easy  way  to  mix  it  well.  For  use  on  a 
larcrer  scale,  make  a  stronijer  solution  of  the  oil,  and 
dilute  it  as  it  is  to  be  used.  To  make  this  strong  solu- 
tion, dissolve  i  kilo  of  soap  in  5  liters  of  boiling  water, 
and  stir  in  10  liters  of  kerosene,  boiling  and  stirring 
until  they  will  not  separate.  It  is  not  safe  to  do  this  in 
a  house.  Unless  the  mixture  is  well  made,  the  kerosene 
will  kill  the  plants. 


58 


PHILIPPINE  AGRICULTURE 


FUNGUS   ENEMIES 

How  Scattered.     There  are  fungus  parasites  (see  page 

5)  on  every  crop  in   the   Philippines,  but  they  probably 

do  less  damage  here  than  in  temperate  lands.     The  most 

destructive  here  are  the  coffee  rust  and  maize  smut. 

These  diseases  spread  from  one  plant  to  another  by 

means  of  their  spores,  which 
are  like  little  seeds,  and  from 
which  new  plants  grow.  The 
smut  can  get  into  a  maize 
field  on  the  seed  planted,  or  its 
spores  can  be  blown  in  by  the 
wind  from  a  neighboring  field. 
The  coffee  rust  can  be  brought 
in  on  young  plants  already 
diseased,  or  blown  in  from 
other  fields.  The  spores  are 
so  small  that  they  cannot  be 
seen  without  a  microscope. 

It  is  as  true  of  the  fungus 

diseases   of   plants   as    of    the 

diseases     of     men     that     "  an 

ounce  of  prevention   is  worth 

a  pound  of  cure." 

How  Avoided.     Into    neighborhoods   where    a   disease 

does  not  exist,  no   live   plants  should   ever  be  brought 

from  places  where  it  does  exist.     If  necessary  to  bring 

in  seeds,  they  should  be  sterilized.     Any  spores  can  be 


Fig.  40.     Coffee  plant  stripped 
of  leaves  by  rust 


THE  LIVING  ENEMIES  OF  CROPS  59 

killed  by  putting  the  seed  for  three  minutes  into  water  at 
a  temperature  of  57°.  This  treatment  costs  nothing, 
and  may  save  much.  Or  the  spores  can  be  killed  by 
soaking  for  one  hour  in  5  per  cent  copper  sulphate. 
This  substance,  commonly  called  "blue  vitriol,"  can  be 
bought  for  a  small  sum  in  any  pharmacy.  Either  of 
these  treatments  is  likely  to  hasten  germination. 

How  Killed.  Where  a  disease  already  exists  on  an 
annual  plant,  that  is,  on  a  plant  living  less  than  a  whole 
year,  it  can  be  gotten  rid  of  by  completely  destroying  the 
remains  of  the  plants  of  any  one  season.  If  this  is  tried, 
all  the  leaves  and  stems  should  be  very  carefully  collected 
and  burned. 

This  is  sometimes  the  best  way  to  fight  a  disease  of 
perennial  plants  also,  but  it  is  very  expensive.  How- 
ever, all  useless  plants  ought  to  be  destroyed.  For  in- 
stance, if  the  people  about  Lipa  desire  to  raise  coffee 
again,  they  must  first  kill  and  burn  the  diseased  coffee 
plants  that  are  now  scattered  along  fences  and  in  waste 
fields.  These  are  of  no  use  whatever,  and  are  as  danger- 
ous to  healthy  neighboring  trees  as  a  man  with  cholera 
is  to  his  human  neighbors.  If  there  are  fields  of  coffee 
too  valuable  to  be  burned  up,  they  should  be  thoroughly 
cleaned.  All  fallen  leaves  and  branches  as  well  as  the 
badly  diseased  trees  should  be  collected  and  burned. 

Bordeaux  Mixture.  The  spread  of  fungus  diseases  from 
living  plant  to  plant  is  prevented  by  means  of  Bordeaux 
mixture.  This  mixture  is  so  called  because  it  was  first 
used  near  the  city  of    Bordeaux,  in   fighting   a    fungus 


6o  PHILIPPINE  AGRICULTURE 

enemy  of  the  grape.  It  is  composed  of  copper  sulphate 
and  lime. 

For  use  on  coffee  this  should  be  a  2  per  cent  solution 
of  copper  sulphate,  but  for  most  plants  i  per  cent  is 
strong  enough.  Into  this  copper  solution  must  be  put 
lime  enough  to  make  the  mixture  neutral.  How  much 
lime  this  takes  depends  on  the  freshness  of  the  lime. 
If  the  lime  is  fresh  and  good,  use  as  much  of  it  as  of 
the  copper  sulphate.  The  mixture  is  neutral  when  red 
litmus  paper  placed  in  it  will  not  turn  blue,  nor  blue 
litmus  paper  turn  red.  Tt  must  be  used  while  fresh;  that 
is,  soon  after  it  is  made.  It  can  be  sprayed  on  plants 
or  trees,  or  their  branches  can  be  dipped  into  it.  Any 
fungus  spores  which  begin  to  germinate  on  leaves  treated 
with  this  mixture  will  promptly  be  killed.  Of  course, 
the  rain  will  finally  wash  it  off. 

In  fighting  the  coffee  rust,  the  Bordeaux  mixture 
should  be  put  on  immediately  after  the  beginning  of 
the  rainy  season.  After  this,  the  trees  should  be  watched; 
and  whenever  the  yellowish  spots  made  by  the  disease 
begin  to  appear  on  the  under  side  of  any  leaves,  all  the 
trees  should  be  sprayed  again.  It  will  be  necessary  to 
spray  well  only  two  or  three  times  a  year,  and  this  will 
cost  much  less  than  the  value  of  the  coffee  which  is 
saved.  Garden  crops  are  not  often  seriously  damaged 
by  the  attacks  of  fungi. 


CHAPTER    IX 

THE  GARDEN 

What  the  Garden  Is.  A  garden  is  a  place  in  which 
small  plants,  such  as  flowering  plants,  vegetables,  and 
small  fruits,  are  cultivated.  A  field  is  larger  than  a 
garden.  Such  plants  as  rice,  sugar-cane,  etc.,  which 
must  be  grown  in  large  quantities  in  order  to  be  profit- 
able, are  cultivated  in  fields.  Vegetables,  like  tomatoes, 
cabbage,  onions,  etc.,  when  grown  for  profit,  are  often 
planted  in  fields.  An  orchard  is  a  place  where  only  trees 
are  cultivated,  while  in  a  garden  the  plants  are  mostly 
herbs. 

The  Home  Garden.  The  garden  may  furnish  food  for 
home  use  only,  or  its  produce  may  be  sold  in  the  market. 
Everybody  who  has  land  about  his  house  should  have  a 
garden  to  supply  his  own  wants ;  for  he  can  cultivate  it 
in  the  spare  minutes  that  would  otherwise  be  wasted. 
The  vegetables  so  grown  at  home  cost  almost  nothing. 
They  taste  better  than  those  bought,  since  they  may 
always  be  used  while  fresh.  Garden  crops  are  very 
valuable,  much  more  so  than  most  field  crops.  There- 
fore, it  pays  to  cultivate  gardens  much  more  thoroughly 
than  it  is  possible  to  cultivate  large  fields. 

The  School  Garden.  Every  school  in  which  agriculture 
is  taught  must  have  a  garden.     The  usual  garden  plants 

6i 


62 


PHILIPPINE  AGRICULTURE 


should  be  cultivated  in  the  school  garden,  and  also  some 
field  crops,  such  as  sugar-cane,  rice,  and  tobacco. 

PREPARATION    OF   THE   SOIL 

Clearing  the  Ground.       Before    work    is    begun    on   a 
school  "rarden,  the  entire  sfarden  should  be  marked  off 


Fig.  41.    Garden  in  the  grounds  of  the  PhiHppine  Normal  School,  Manila 

with  perfect  regularity.  Stakes  at  the  corners  of  each 
student's  plot  should  be  driven  firmly  into  the  ground. 
All  sticks  and  other  rubbish  on  the  ground,  except  herbs 
soft  enough  to  rot  easily,  should  then  be  burned  on  the 
plot ;  and  there  is  no  objection  to  burning  the  herbs,  too, 
except  that  the  nitrogen  in  them  will  then  be  lost.  All 
stones,  even  little  ones,  should  be  removed  entirely  from 
the  garden. 


THE  GARDEN 


63 


Moisture  in  Soil.  The  soil  in  a  garden  should  always 
be  moist  and  always  well  aired.  Only  a  soil  which  is 
very  fine  and  quite  deep  will  always  be  both  moist  and 
well  aired.  The  method  of  getting  the  soil  into  just  the 
right  condition,  and  keeping  it  so,  depends  on  the  season. 
In  dry  weather  the  soil  must  lose  as  little  moisture  as 
possible;  therefore,  in  the  dry  season  the  plots  must  not 
be  made  any  higher  than  the  paths  between  them,  and  the 
surface  must  always  be  kept  very  fine  and  level,  so  that 
the  water  will  not  run  off  but  will  sink  into  the  <^round. 


Fig.  42.    Hoe  and  rake 

In  wet  weather,  however,  the  paths  may  be  made  some- 
what lower  than  the  plots;  but  if  the  plots  are  much 
higher  than  the  paths,  the  soil  will  wash  away  badly  in 
hard  rains.  Very  wet  soil  can  be  broken  or  hoed  up  in 
great  clods  and  left  until  partly  dry.  It  will  dry  thus 
more  rapidly  than  if  untouched  or  made  fine.  But  if 
these  clods  are  left  too  long,  they  will  harden  and  cannot 
easily  be  broken. 

Plots  in  which  seeds  are  to  be  planted  should  them- 
selves be  fiat  in  all  seasons.  In  dry  weather  flat  ground, 
as  we  have  seen,  will  lose  the  least  possible  moisture. 

Planting  the  Seed.  In  wet  weather,  if  the  seeds  are 
planted  in  furrows,  rain  is  likely  to,  wash  the  soil  over 
them  and  bury  them  so  deeply  that  they  will  rot,  or  even 


64 


PHILIPPINE  AGRICULTURE 


if  they  germinate,  be  unable  ever  to  reach  the  surface; 

while  if  they  are  planted  in  ridges,  the  rain  is  likely  to 

wash  the  soil  away  and  leave  them  on  the  surface. 

When  as  much  of  the  garden  plot  as  can  be  prepared 

in  one  day  is  ready,  the  seeds  should  be 

planted  immediately.     If  a  person  spends 

several  days  in  preparing  the  soil,  and  then 

plants  it  all  at  once,  he  is    likely  to   find 

the  part  that  was  first  prepared  drier  than 

the  part  worked  later.     Thus  it  will  be  a 

poorer  place  for  the    germination    of    the 

seed  (see  page  12). 

Fertilizers.  If  fertilizers  are  to  be  used, 
it  is  best  to  work  them  into  the  soil  before 
the  seeds  are  planted.  Because  of  the 
greater  value  of  garden  crops,  it  is  com- 
mon for  people  who  do  not  put  fertilizers 
on  fields  to  use  them  on  gardens. 

Garden  Tools.  On  home  gardens  it  is 
usually  impossible  to  plow  the  ground ; 
and  this  is  one  reason  for  not  plowing  the 
school  garden.  The  best  tool  with  which 
to  cultivate  a  small  plot  of  ground  deeply  is  a  fork.  A 
spade  is  better  only  when  there  are  roots  in  the  ground. 
It  is  possible  to  cultivate  deeply  with  a  hoe,  but  not 
nearly  so  rapidly  as  with  a  fork.  After  the  ground  is 
broken  up,  a  rake  is  the  best  hand  tool  with  which  to 
make  it  very  fine.  • 


Fig.  43.    Spade 
and  fork 


THE  GARDEN' 


6$ 


Fl<;.  44.     A  seed  box  to  protect 
the  seed  from  ants 


SEED    BEDS 

Ants  and  Seeds.  There  are  some  kinds  of  seeds,  such 
as  lettuce,  tomato,  and  tobacco,  of  which  ants  are  very 
fond,  and  which  are  so  small  that  ants  can  carry  them 
away.  If  such  seeds  are  planted  in  soil  in  which  there 
are  ants,  very  few  of  them  will  have  a  chance  to  grow. 
Sometimes  the  ants  destroy  even  large  seeds  which  they 
cannot  carry  away  whole. 
When  the  soil  is  cultivated, 
the  ants  in  it  have  their 
homes  broken  up.  If  it  is 
cultivated  several  times 
within  a  few  days,  the  ants 
will  tire  of  the  place  and 
find  a  home  in  quieter 
ground;  cultivating  three  times  will  almost  always  drive 
them  away.  Seeds  can  then  be  planted,  and,  unless  the 
seeds  germinate  very  slowly,  they  will  be  entirely  safe, 
for  the  ants  do  not  disturb  the  young  growing  plants. 

Another  way  of  protecting  the  seed  is  by  washing  it 
in  petroleum,  which  will  not  injure  the  seed  if  it  is  done 
quickly  enough.  Some  disagreeable  substance,  such  as 
pepper,  or  /cw  ashes,  or  buhac,  or  lime  if  put  into  the 
ground  with  the  seed,  will   also  drive  the  ants  away. 

Ant-proof  Seed  Beds.  The  surest  of  all  ways  to  protect 
seeds  from  ants  is  by  planting  them  in  a  box  suj^ported 
by  legs  which  stand  in  dishes  of  oil  or  water.  Such  a  box 
can  be  set  in  the  shade  where  the  soil  will  not  dry  rapidly ; 
and  if  necessary  it  can  be   sheltered   by  a  roof,  so  that 


66  .  PHILIPPINE  AGRICULTURE 

the  soil  will  not  be  beaten  down  or  soaked  by  rain.  In 
such  a  box  the  soil  can  be  kept  properly  moist,  and  ants 
cannot  reach  the  seed.  Therefore  the  seed  has  a  better 
chance  to  germinate  than  it  is  likely  to  have  in  the 
ground. 

Advantages  of  Seed  Beds.  A  seed  bed  is  a  place  in 
which  seeds  are  planted  close  together  to  germinate,  and 
from  which  the  seedlings  are  afterward  transplanted  to 
their  permanent  places.  The  seed  bed  may  be  a  box  or 
a  small  plot  of  ground.  Its  use  gives  some  advantages 
over  planting  seeds  in  their  permanent  places.  The 
young  plants  can  be  growing  in  the  seed  bed  at  the  same 
time  that  the  ground  is  being  cultivated  to  receive  them. 
In  this  way  considerable  time  can  be  gained,  and  in  the 
case  of  some  crops  which  thrive  well  during  only  a  part 
of  the  year,  this  gain  of  time  is  important. 

Richer  and  finer  soil  than  that  of  the  garden  can  be 
used  in  the  seed  bed.  This  makes  the  growth  of  young 
seedlings  very  vigorous,  and  a  good  start  is  just  as  im- 
portant to  a  plant  as  to  a  boy.  The  soil  in  the  seed  bed 
should  be  light,  and  fine,  and  deep,  so  that  the  roots 
will  be  injured  as  little  as  possible  when  transplanted. 
Suggestions  for  transplanting  have  already  been  given 
(see  page  40).  As  a  rule,  root  crops  should  not  be  trans- 
planted. 

ROOT   CROPS 

Camote.  Root  crops  are  those  which  are  cultivated 
for  the  sake  of  the  roots.  Some  plants  cultivated  for 
the  sake  of  underground  stems  are  also  called  root  crops. 


THE  GARDEN  6/ 

Some  of  the  root  crops  were  probably  the  first  crops  ever 
cultivated  by  men.  In  the  Philippines  and  in  most  other 
tropical  lands,  the  sweet  potato,  or  camote,  is  the  most 
important  of  them.  The  sweet  potato  is  the  root  of  the 
plant  called  Ipomoca  Batatas,  which  belongs  to  the  morn- 
ing-glory genus.  It  is  a  native  of  tropical  America,  prob- 
ably about  Panama  or  farther  north  ;  but  in  the  Old 
World  it  has  also  been  cul- 
tivated from  very  ancient 
times.  It  has  so  long  been 
grown  without  the  use  of 
seed  that  it  very  rarely  forms  ^'^'- ■»-  ^^^-^*  potato  or  camote 
any  ;  and  even  the  flowers  are  uncommon  in  some  places. 
Planting  and  Cultivating  the  Camote.  Sweet  potatoes 
are  reproduced  l^y  cutting  off  the  end  of  a  vigorously 
growing  vine,  and  putting  the  cut  end  in  moist  ground 
where  it  will  take  root.  As  often  as  once  a  year,  it  is 
advisable  to  use  roots  for  propagation  instead  of  an  old 
vine.  For  this  purpose,  the  roots  are  buried  close 
together,  about  lo  cm  deep,  in  rich  ground.  In  a  few 
weeks  there  are  many  vine  branches  growing  from  each 
root,  and  the  tips  of  these  are  cut  off  and  used  in  the 
way  just  described.  In  most  parts  of  the  Philippines 
the  sweet  potatoes  are  of  poor  quality,  being  small  and 
stringy.  Poor  cultivation  is  a  cause  of  both  of  these  de- 
fects.    This  plant  wants  soil  which  is  light,  but  rich. 

What  shape  have  the  leaves  of  the  sweet  potato? 
What  shape  is  the  sweet  j^otato  ? 
How  large  do  sweet  potatoes  grow? 


68 


PHILIPPINE  AGRICULTURE 


Fig.  46.      Ubi  vine  on  a  fence 


Yams.  Yams  are  plants  of  the  genus /7/^j^^rm.  They 
are  vines,  with  roots  somewhat  like  sweet  potatoes.    The' 

most  important  is  the 
Chinese  yam,  Dioscorea 
Batatas,  which  is  culti- 
vated in  most  temperate 
countries;  it  is  bitter 
when  fresh,  but  becomes 
sweet  when  soaked. 
The  two  most  impor- 
tant Philippine  yams  are 
ubi  and  tugui.  "Name" 
is  a  less  common  one, 
which  is  quite  poisonous  when  fresh.  Paquit  is  a  yam 
with  especially  large  and  deep  roots ;  it  is  a  staple  food 
of  the  Negritos  in  Bataan. 

Taro.  Next  to  the  sweet  potato,  taro  is  the  most  im- 
portant root  crop  of  the  Philippines.  This  is  the  plant 
called  Colocasia  antiquorum-  in  Latin,  and  known  as  gabi 
in  the  Philippines,  Strictly  speaking,  it  is  not  a  root. 
It  is  probably  a  native  of  this  part  of  the  world,  but  its 
cultivation  in  other  tropical  countries  is  very  ancient. 
Gabi  can  be  cooked  in  fully  as  many  ways  as  potatoes 
can,  and  is  a  very  nutritious  food  ;  the  young  leaves  make 
delicious  greens.  A  much  larger  plant  in  the  same  fam- 
ily, called  hading,  is  cultivated  in  the  Bisayas  and  some 
other  parts  of  the  Islands.  Next  to  rice,  gabi  demands 
more  water  than  any  other  Philippine  crop.  It  thrives 
on  rather  heavy  soil.     It  is  propagated  by  putting  old 


THE  GARDEN- 


69 


"roots"  in  the  ground; 
each  of  these  soon  forms 
several  small  plants. 

Beets.  Several  root 
crops  of  northern  coun- 
tries have  been  introduced 
into  the  Philippines  with- 
in the  last  few  years. 
Among  these  are  the  beet, 
turnip,  red  radish,  carrot, 
and  parsnip.  The  beet  is 
the  most  important  of 
these.  It  is  a  native  of 
Europe.  The  real  seed 
is  very  small,  but  is  al- 
ways inclosed  in  a  corky 
calyx. 

There  are  several  different  varieties  of  beets,  which 
have  different  uses.  In  temperate  countries,  the  most 
important  is  the  sugar  beet;  but  as  it  is  a 
more  expensive  source  of  sugar  than  is  the 
sugar-cane,  it  would  be  foolish  to  grow  this 
plant  in  the  Philippines.  Another  very  large 
beet  is  cultivated  as  a  food  for  cattle.  The 
garden  beet  has  a  thick,  red  root,  which  is 
cooked  in  various  ways,  and  is  a  very  nourish- 
ing food.  The  red  leaves  and  petioles  are 
also  eaten  as  greens.  Heets  grow  well  in  soil 
Fig.  48.   Beet   that  is  hcavy,  but  not  too  wet. 


Fl(J.  47.      Taro,  or  gabi 


70 


PHILIPPINE  AGRICULTURE 


Fig.  49.     Turnip 


Planting  and  Culture  of  Beets.  All  of  these  plants  should 
be  planted  in  rows  30  cm  apart,  the  seeds  i  cm  deep, 
covered  by  very  fine  soil.  The  young  plants  should  be 
15  cm  apart  in  the  rows.  The  beet, 
turnip,  and  parsnip  will  soon  become 
crowded ;  and  then  every  second  plant 
should  be  removed  and  eaten. 

The  turnip  and  radish  grow  best  on 
lighter  soil.  For  parsnips  the  ground 
must  be  especially  deep;  therefore, 
they  are  a  dry-season  crop.  Turnips, 
radishes,  mustard,  and  cabbages  are 
nearly  related  plants,  and  have  the  same 
diseases  and  enemies. 
In  the  Normal  School  garden  in  Manila,  the  average 
time  between  planting  and  harvesting  root  crops  was: 
radishes,  51  days;  turnips,  60  days;  beets,  71  days;  car- 
rots, 75  days.  Cincomas  is  a  Philippine  root 
crop  which  belongs  in  the  legume  family  of 
plants.  In  the  Normal  School  garden  it  was 
harvested  in  68  days,  but  was  not  mature.  If 
the  roots  are  left  a  long  time  in  the  ground, 
they  cease  to  be  sweet,  as  most  of  the  sugar 
in  them  is  changed  to  starch. 

Onions.  The  part  that  we  eat  grows  in  the 
ground  but  is  not  a  root.  In  the  Philippines 
the  onion  thrives  only  in  the  dry  season.  The  onion  plant 
reproduces  poorly  by  seed.  Its  relative,  the  garlic  or 
bauang,  is  a  more  important  crop  here. 


Fig.  50.     Radish 


THE  GARDEN- 


71 


LEAF  CROPS 

There  are  many  plants 
whose  leaves  or  young  shoots 
are  eaten  fresh,  or  cooked  and 
eaten  as  greens.  The  garden 
plants  raised  in  the  Philippines 
for  their  leaves  are  mustard, 
cabbage,  and  lettuce.  AH  of 
these  are  agreeable  but  not 
very  valuable  foods.  All  have 
small  seed,  which  should  be 
planted  not  more  than  i  cm 
deep,  in   very  fine  soil. 

Mustard.  Mustard  is  best  planted  where  the  plants 
are  to  grow,  and  not  in  a  seed  bed.  The  rows  should  be 
30  cm  apart,  and  the  plants  10  or  15  cm  apart  in  each 


Fig.  51.     Garlic 


Fit;.  52.     A  lifld  ut Onions 


72 


PHILIPPINE  AGRICULTURE 


row.  At  this  distance,  the  plants  will  be  crowded  before 
they  are  full-grown ;  and  crowded  plants  have  more 
tender  leaves  than  do  plants  with  more  room.  In  the 
Normal  School  garden,  mustard  matures  in  44  days. 

Pe  Chai.  Pe  chai  is  a  Chinese  plant  which  is  planted 
and  used  like  mustard.  It  is  really  a  cabbage,  but  does 
not  form  heads  in  the  Philippines.  If  the  outer  leaves 
are  always  removed   before  they  become  old,  new  ones 

will  keep  on  grow- 
ing, so  that  the 
same  plants  will 
produce  fresh 
leaves  for  several 
months. 

Cabbage.  Cab- 
bages are  better 
planted  in  seed 
beds,  because  they 
need  to  be  far  apart,  and  it  is  a  waste  of  time  to  have  to 
cultivate  the  ground  between  them  while  they  are  very 
small.  In  the  mountains  very  fine  and  large  cab- 
bages are  grown;  but  in  the  plains  of  the  Philippines, 
where  they  will  grow  only  in  the  dry  season,  they 
are  not  large  and  not  as  hard  as  they  should  be.  They 
should  not  be  planted  later  than  October,  because 
they  require  a  long  season,  and  because  the  insects 
which  attack  them  are  least  numerous  early  in  the 
dry  season.  Cabbages  should  be  50  cm  apart  in  each 
direction. 


Fig.  53.     A  cabbage  field 


THE  GARDEN 


71 


Lettuce.  Lettuce  also  is  best  planted  in  seed  beds, 
because  otherwise  ants  are  likely  to  steal  the  seed.  The 
young  lettuce  plants  must  be  transplanted 
very  carefully,  or  they  will  not  grow  for 
some  time  afterwards.  The  rows  should 
be  30  cm  apart,  and  the  plants  20  cm 
apart  in  each  row.  They  should  be  har- 
vested before  the  flowering  stem  begins 
to  grow  above  the  leaves.  Lettuce  should 
be  shaded  for  several  days  before  it  is  cut. 


Fk;.  54.     A  head 
of  lettuce 

This  checks 


the  transpiration,  and  makes  the  leaves  tender. 


THE  SQUASH    FAMILY 

The  cultivated  plants  of  the  squash  family  are  squashes 
and  pumpkins,  gourds,  melons,  and  cucumbers.     These 
are  all  large-leaved  vines,  valuable  for 
their  fruit.     All  of  them  require  well- 
aired  soil.     They  grow  best,  or  only, 
FIG.  55.  cucutTiber     j^  ^j^^  ^^^  scasou.     The  squashcs  are 

the  most  important  of  them. 

Squash  Hills.  Squashes  are  planted  in  hills.  To  make 
a  good  hill,  a  round  hole  is  dug,  20  cm  deep,  and  80  cm 
in  diameter.  The  earth  taken  out  is  then  well  mixed 
with  one  quarter  as  much  rotten  manure  as  earth.  The 
mixture  is  then  put  back  into  the  hole.  This  makes  a 
hill,  higher  than  the  ground  around  it,  and  therefore  well 
aired.  The  ground  should  not  be  fertilized  later  in  the 
season,  because  if  this  is  done,  the  plants  are  likely  to 
produce  long  vines  with  little  fruit.     As  many  as  three 


74 


PHILIPPINE  AGRICULTURE 


plants  can  grow  In  one  hill.  The  distance  between  hills 
depends  on  the  variety  of  squash.  Some  varieties  have 
long  vines  ;  some,  short  ones. 

Care  of  the  Vines.  In  temperate 
countries,  squash  vines  lie  on  the 
ground;  but  in  the  Philippines,  be- 
cause the  climate  is  more  moist,  they 
are  usually  given  supports  on  which  to 
Fig. 56.  quasi  climb.  They  may  as  wcll  be  left  on 
the  ground,  however,  unless  it  is  wet  enough  to  make  the 
fruit  decay.  The  vines  will  take  root  at  the  nodes.  After 
the  vines  become  strong  and  healthy,  these  roots  must  be 
cut  on  the  young  parts,  or  the  plants  will  make  long 
vines,  instead  of  much  fruit.  After  a  young  squash  ap- 
pears on  a  vine,  it  is 
best  to  cut  the  tip  of 
the  branch;  this 
makes  the  plant  put 
its  strength  into  the 
fruit. 

Varieties.  There 
are  many  varieties  of 
squashes,  differing 
in  size,  shape,  taste, 
and  in  the  time  it 
takes  them  to  mature.  The  American  squashes  ma- 
ture much  more  quickly  than  do  those  common  in  the 
Philippines,  but  are  more  likely  to  be  injured  by  insects 
and  diseases.     Ampalaya  and  upo  are  gourds  rather  than 


Fig.  57.    Ampalaya 


THE   GARDEN 


;5 


squashes,  and  the  vines  need  a  support  upon  which  they 
can  ch'mb. 


Fu;.  58.     Field  oi  watermelons  in  California 

Melons  and  cucumbers  require  a  rich  but  very  Hglit 
soil.  In  most  parts  of  the  PhilipjDines  these  plants  have 
not  grown  well,  and  have  usually  been  killed  by  diseases. 
However,  in  some  places,  as  at  Bautista,  in  Pangasinan, 
and  at  Zamboanga,  excellent  melons  are  grown. 

LKC.UMKS 

Special  Value  of  Legumes.  The  legume  family  includes 
all  the  garden  plants  with  fruit  similar  to  that  of  the 
bean.  This  is  a  very  large  family,  and  includes  many 
valuable  plants  not  cultivated  in  gardens  ;  among  these 
are  the  tamarind,  or  sampalok,  camanchili,  caturay,  narra. 


je  PHILIPPINE  AGRICULTURE 

acle,  ipil,  and  tindalo.  We  have  already  learned  (see 
page  29)  that  the  plants  of  this  family  have  nodules,  or 
tubercles,  on  their  roots,  and  that  in  these  nodules  the 
nitrogen  of  the  air  is  fixed.  The  legumes  are  especially 
useful  crops,  because  instead  of  making  the  soil  poorer, 
they  leave  it  richer  in  this  valuable  plant  food.  All  of 
these  plants  grow  well  in  soil  rich  in  lime. 

.Kinds  of  Garden  Legumes.  The  cultivated  legumes  are 
the  cincomas,  pea,  the  various  beans,  the  indigo,  and  the 
peanut.  Peas  have  been  harvested  from  the  Philippine 
Normal  School  garden  29  days  after  planting ;  but  it  was 
a  small  crop  and  the  plants  were  already  dying  with  the 
first  fruit.  Neither  the  American  pea  nor  the  Spanish 
garbanzo  has  been  found  suited  to  general  cultivation 
here. 

Beans.  There  are  several  valuable  garden  plants  which 
can  be  grouped  as  beans.  All  of  these  are  valuable  foods, 
because  they  are  rich  in  proteids,  the  substance  for  which 
lean  meat  is  eaten.  For  this  reason  they  are  especially 
valuable  to  people  who  do  not  often  eat  meat.  A  person 
who  eats  enough  beans  need  never  eat  meat  or  eggs  for 
their  proteid. 

Different  Kinds  of  Beans.  Some  of  these  beans  are 
climbing  vines ;  others  are  bushy  plants.  The  patani  is 
the  most  important  climbing  bean.  Among  the  bushy 
ones  are  the  American  bush  beans,  which  are  natives  of 
South  America,  and  the  mungo  or  balatong,  which  is  a 
native  of  India  or  Malaya.  The  mungo  is  a  very  pro- 
ductive and  easily  cultivated  plant,  which  will  grow  on 


THE  GARDEN 


77 


almost  any  soil,  and  endures  much  water.  A  great 
many  are  eaten  in  the  Philippines,  and  some  are  ex- 
ported to  China.  Cagyos,  whose  Latin  name  is  Cajamis 
Iiidicjis,  is  an  erect  plant,  sometimes  2  meters  high ;  it 
produces  its  fruit  about  February,  when  other  legumes 
are  least  abundant.  Sitao  and 
batao  are  Manila  names  of  climb- 
ing legumes;  batao  has  an  es- 
pecially fine  flavor. 

The  Peanut.  The  peanut,  Ar- 
achis  hypoi^aca,  called  mani  in  the 
Philippines,  is  valuable  both  as  a 
garden  and  as  a  field  crop.  It  is 
a  native  of  Brazil,  but  is  culti- 
vated in  all  tropical  lands.  The 
stem  and  leaves  are  good  fodder 
for  beasts,  and  the  seeds  are  valu- 
able as  food  and  as  a  source  of  oil. 
The  oil  is  used  to  make  soap,  to 
adulterate  cacao, and  in  other  ways. 

Conditions  of  Growth.  The  peanut  grows  in  the  tropics, 
and  in  temperate  countries  where  there  are  four  months 
of  hot  summer  without  cold  nights.  It  can  endure  con- 
siderable dryness,  and  will  grow  in  any  soil  which  is  not 
very  wet  or  heavy.  If  it  is  grown  for  the  oil,  light  colored 
soils  are  best,  because  the  nuts  and  oil  are  there  lighter 
colored  ;  and  light  oil  sells  at  a  better  price  than  dark. 
On  a  soil  poor  in  lime  but  little  fruit  is  produced. 

In  the  tropics  the  seeds  sometimes    contain    50   per 


Fig.  59.    Sitao 


78 


PHILIPPINE  AGRICULTURE 


cent  of  oil.  In  the  United  States,  the  oil  is  hardly  more 
than  25  per  cent  of  the  seeds;  but  the  seeds  without  too 
much  oil  are  best  to  eat.  The  seeds  are  short-lived,  es- 
pecially if  they  are  not  very  dry. 

Culture  of  Peanuts.  The  soil  for  peanuts  should  not 
be  cultivated  more  than  10  or  at  most  15  cm  deep.     On 

rich  ground,  the  peanuts 
should  be  planted  2.5  cm 
deep,  in  rows  120  cm  apart, 
and  80  cm  apart  in  each 
row,  with  2  nuts  in  each 
place.  On  poorer  ground 
they  may  be  planted  closer 
together.  The  plants  will 
come  up  in  from  10  to  14 
days.  While  they  are  still 
young,  they  should  be  cul- 
tivated shallowly,  about  three  times.  The  flowers  are 
borne  on  short  stalks  in  the  axils  of  the  leaves.  After 
blossoming,  the  flowers  wither;  then  the  flower-stalk 
elongates,  bends  downward,  and  pushes  the  young  seeds 
or  fruit  into  the  earth.  The  seeds  go  down  into  the 
ground  as  far  as  they  can.  If  the  ground  is  soft,  they 
will  grow  downward  for  a  long  time  instead  of  ripening; 
and  when  they  do  ripen,  they  are  hard  to  harvest  and 
many  are  lost. 

Harvesting  Peanuts.  When  the  crop  is  thoroughly 
ripe,  the  ground  is  softened  enough  so  that  the  plants 
can  be  pulled  out,  with  their  fruit.     If  they  are  then  left 


Fig.  60.    Peanut  plant  with  fruit 


THE  GARDEN 


79 


in  the  sun  two  weeks,  to  dry,  the  seed  can  easily  be  re- 
moved, and  the  stems  and  leaves  will  be  better  as  fodder 
than  when  green  and  fresh. 

Indigo.  Twenty  years  ago,  this  was  a  very  important 
crop  in  the  Philippines,  especially  in  Ilocos  Sur.  But 
some  of  the  indigo  growers  and  merchants  there  put 
other  substances  into  the  indigo,  so  as  to  make  more 
money;  and  after  a  little  while 
nobody  would  pay  a  good  price 
for  any  of  their  indigo.  Even 
good  indigo  sells  for  a  much 
lower  price  now  than  it  formerly 
did.  Indigo  is  planted  i  cm  deep, 
in  rows  40  cm  apart,  several  seeds 
in  a  bunch,  and  the  bunches  15 
to  20  cm  apart.  Twenty-four 
liters  of  seed  will  plant  i  hektar. 
It  may  be  planted  whenever  it 
is  likely  to  receive  light  rains, 
or  in  the  driest  season    if   it  can  ^'^^'-  ^^-  o'^'"-' 

be  irrigated.  In  Ilocos  it  is  planted  from  November  to 
February.  It  lives  nine  or  ten  months  and  gives  two  or 
three  crops.  The  plants  are  cut  when  in  flower.  Two 
hundred  kilos  of  plants  will  make  i  kilo  of  first  quality 
indigo,  or  2  kilos  of  "corriente." 


GARDEN    FRUITS 

Okra.     The    common    soft    garden     fruits    are    okra, 
tomato,   eggplant,    and    pe})per.      Okra    is   a    native    of 


8o  PHILIPPINE  AGRICULTURE 

Malaya,  and  thrives  in  the  PhiHppines  under  all  con- 
ditions and  in  all  seasons  better  than  any  other  garden 
crop.  The  plants  should  stand  50  cm  apart  in  each  di- 
rection; but  on  very  rich  soil  or  in  moist  weather  they 
may  be  farther  apart.  The  fruit  is  useful  only  when  it  is 
young  and  tender.  Then  it  may  be  used  in  making  soup, 
stewed  with  other  vegetables,  or  cooked  alone. 

Tomatoes.     Tomatoes  should  be  planted   in  boxes  or 
seed  beds,  both  because  the  ants  like  the  seed,  and  be- 
cause   the    plants,    like   cabbage, 
must  finally  be  set  regularly,  far 
apart.     The  seed  can  be  planted 
in  boxes  before  the    end  of  the 
wet  season,  and   transplanted  as 
soon  as   the  soil  is  dry  enough. 
Fig.  62.   Tomatoes  boxed  for         The    plants    should    bc    traus- 
'"^''*'*'^  planted  carefully  before  they  are 

10  cm  high ;  they  should  be  80  cm  apart  each  way. 
Tomatoes  demand  rich  soil,  which  may  be  heavy  or 
light;  but  neither  the  soil  nor  the  air  should  be  very 
moist. 

When  the  plants  begin  to  bear  fruit,  they  should  be 
kept  up  in  the  air  by  a  wooden  frame,  or  else  some  dry 
grass  or  leaves  should  be  put  on  the  ground  to  keep  the 
fruit  clean.  On  good  and  fine  soil,  tomatoes  do  not 
need  to  be  irrigated  after  they  begin  to  bear  fruit.  Too 
much  water  makes  them  produce  branches  instead  of  fruit. 
Eggplant.  The  eggplant,  or  talong,  is  probably  East 
Indian  in  origin.     It  is  a  fruit  with  fine  flavor,  but  not  of 


THE  GARDEN 


much  food  value.      The  seeds  can  be  planted  in  seed 

beds,  or  in   their   permanent   places ;    the 

seed  bed  is  rather  better.     The  common 

talong  in  the  Philippines  has  a  long,  slen- 
der,  black  fruit;    while   the 
seed  from  America   usually 
produces  a  much  larger  but 
shorter   fruit.     The    Philip-  fig.  63.  American 
pine  plants  are  smaller,  and         ^^ssp'^n' 
can  be  planted  45  cm  apart,  while  60  cm 
is  close  enough  for  the  American  variety. 

Red  Pepper.  The  red 
pepper,  of  which  the  green 
pepper  is  a  variety,  is  a  na- 

FiG.  64.   Philippine  tive  of  AmcHca.      It  is  like 
eggplant         ^j^^,  cggplaut  \\\  bciug  catcu 

chiefly  because  it  has  a  pleasant  taste.     It 

should  be  planted  like  the  Philippine  ii^^- 

Pl'irit.  pif;   6-    R^.(i  pepper 


Why  are  parsnips  not  likely  to  live  in  the   rainy  season  ?     Answer 
fully.     Why  is  it  not  necessary  to  plant  mustartl   in  a  seed  bed? 


CHAPTER  X 

STARCH   PLANTS 

Starch  is  formed  in  the  leaves  of  most  plants,  in  the 
sunlight ;  but  this  starch  is  soon  used  by  the  plant  for 
its  own  growth,  and  leaves  never  contain  enough  starch 
so  that  it  would  pay  to  try  to  extract  it.  Many  plants 
also  store  up  starch  in  their  roots,  trunks,  or  in  other 
parts  to  be  used  later  in  making  fruit,  or  in  propagating 
themselves  in  some  other  way. 

The  thick  trunk  of  the  buri  palm  is  a  place  in  which 
starch  is  stored  up  for  many  years,  and  then  used  all  in 
one  season  in  making  fruit.  Every  Filipino  knows  that 
he  can  get  good  starch  from  this  trunk.  Sago  is  a  kind 
of  starch  obtained  from  certain  palms  and  other  similar 
trees.  Starch  is  also  easily  obtained  from  the  fruit  of 
rice  and  maize.  Three  root  crops  which  are  important 
sources  of  starch  are  maniok  or  cassava,  potato,  and 
arrowroot. 

MANIOK 

History  of  the  Plant.  Maniok  is  the  plant  called 
camoting  cahoy  in  the  Philippines,  and  known  in  botany 
as  Mmiihot  utilissima.  It  is  a  native  of  tropical  Amer- 
ica, where  there  are  many  other  species  of  Manihot. 
One  of  these  is  Manihot  Glaziovii,  the  Ceara  rubber, 
which  is  now  being  planted  in  the  Philippines. 

82 


STARCH  PLANTS 


83 


Vic.  66.     Maniok,  or  canioting  cahoy,  or  cassava 

Maniok  was  the  most  important  food  plant  of  all 
tropical  America  when  the  Europeans  discovered  that 
country.  It  grows  well  only  in  the  tropics.  A  temjjera- 
ture  as  low  as  10°  is  injurious  to  it.  The  plant  is  now 
cultivated  in  all  tropical  countries,  but  its  starch  is  ex- 
ported chiefly  from  Brazil  and  the  Straits  Settlements 
(Singapore).  It  is  cultivated  in  Florida,  but  yields  small 
and  poor  crops  there. 

Sweet  and  Bitter  Maniok.  The  roots  of  all  the  species 
contain  Prussic  acid,  a  very  poisonous  substance.  If 
they  contain  much  of  this,  or  if  much  of  it  is  in  the 
starchv  pith,  the  plant  is  called  bitter  maniok;  some 
varieties  contain  but  little,  and  are  called  sweet  maniok. 
The  Prussic  acid  can  be  n.Miioved  by  careful  washing  of 
the  roots,  by  roasting  or  cooking,  or  by  thorough  drving 
in  the  sun.     Sweet  maniok  endures  a  cooler  countrv  and 


84  PHILIPPINE  AGRICULTURE 

poorer  soil  than  bitter  maniok,  but  in  such  places  it 
produces  less  starch. 

Conditions  of  Growth.  Maniok  needs  frequent  showers 
during  the  first  two  months  of  its  growth,  but  after  this 
time  endures  dry  weather  well.  However,  if  the  air  is 
very  dry,  the  crop  is  coarse.  Its  soil  should  be  deep, 
rich,  fine,  and  loose.  Good  forest  soil  is  of  this  kind, 
and  in  the  Straits  Settlements  maniok  is  cultivated  by 
the  caingin  system  (see  page  30). 

Maniok  exhausts  the  soil  so  rapidly  that  after  it  has 
been  grown  only  three  years  on  the  same  soil  the  crops 
become  considerably  smaller.  The  food  which  it  takes 
from  the  soil  in  great  quantities  is  nitrogen.  Therefore, 
in  order  to  obtain  good  crops  year  after  year  it  is  neces- 
sary to  use  green  manures.  A  rotation  of  crops,  in 
which  peanuts,  or  mungos,  are  planted  instead  of  maniok 
every  third  year,  will  keep  the  soil  fertile  for  a  long  time. 
The  fertility  will  be  still  better  retained  if  lime  is  put  on 
the  soil  before  the  legumes  are  planted. 

Planting  and  Cultivation.  Maniok  is  practically  seed- 
less, and  is  propagated  by  putting  pieces  of  the  stems  in 
the  ground.  Each  of  these  pieces  must  contain  at  least 
one  node,  from  which  the  young  plant  will  grow.  On 
good  ground  they  should  be  planted  in  rows  i  meter 
apart,  being  placed  80  cm  apart  in  each  row.  The 
ground  should  be  cultivated  well  during  the  first  two 
months.  After  that  time  the  maniok  will  keep  the 
weeds  down ;  but  some  later  cultivation  will  improve  the 
crop. 


STARCH  PLANTS  85 

Some  short-lived  crop,  such  as  mungo  or  maize,  may 
be  planted  between  the  plants  of  maniok;  this  will  mature 
and  be  removed  before  the  maniok  is  full-grown.  Maniok 
will  produce  some  roots  on  poor  ground,  and  without  any 
cultivation;  but  it  is  of  course  not  a  prolific  crop  if 
treated  in  this  way.  The  green  branches  of  the  plant 
should  never  be  cut  off;  but  if  flowers  begin  to  grow,  they 
should  be  removed. 

How  the  Starch  is  Secured.  The  crop  is  ready  to  har- 
vest when  the  roots  are  fullest  of  starch.  If  it  is  well  cul- 
tivated, this  should  be  in  9  to  14  months.  After  that 
time  the  starch  begins  to  decrease.  The  roots  can  be 
cooked  and  eaten,  if  desired,  like  yams  or  sweet  potatoes. 

If  they  are  to  be  used  as  a  source  of  starch,  the  roots 
must  be  very  thoroughly  washed,  and  then  peeled. 
When  clean  and  white,  they  are  scraped  or  ground  into 
a  fine  pulp.  'Clean  water  should  then  be  used  to  wash 
the  starch  out  of  this  pulp,  and  into  tanks,  leaving  the 
fibrous  part  behind.  The  starch  is  so  fine  that  it  will 
run  through  fine  cloth ;  so  if  the  ground  roots  are 
washed  across  a  tank  or  trough  with  a  cloth  top,  the 
water  and  starch  fall  through  the  cloth,  but  the  fibers 
wash  away.  After  the  starch  settles  in  the  tanks,  the 
water  is  run  off.  The  starch  is  washed  until  perfectly 
white,  and  then  dried.  No  dust  must  be  allowed  to 
fall  on  it,  for  only  pure  white  starch  sells  at  a  good  price. 

A  very  cheap  machine  for  scraping  the  roots  into  pulp 
can  be  made  by  filling  a  sheet  of  sheet-iron  with  nail  holes, 
the  nail  always  being  driven  through  in  the  same  direction. 


86  FHIUPPINE  AGRICULTURE 

The  sheet  is  then  fastened  around  a  wooden  cyUnder,  the 
rough  side  outward.  This  cylinder  is  turned  rapidly  in- 
side a  larger  cylinder  or  rounded  box,  with  the  roots  be- 
tween the  two. 

Yield.  The  average  yield  of  each  plant  should  be  fully 
5  kilos  of  roots,  or  more  than  60  tons  to  the  hektar. 
Thirty  per  cent  of  the  weight  of  the  roots  should  be 
starch,  and  three  quarters  of  this  can  be  easily  washed 
out.  Tapioca  is  the  finest  starch  made  from  the  maniok 
plant. 

POTATO 

History  of  the  Potato.  The  potato,  whose  name  is 
Solanum  tuberosum,  is  also  a  native  of  tropical  America, 
but  it  grew  there  only  in  the  mountainous  regions.  It  was 
in  cultivation  by  the  Indians  as  far  north  as  Virginia. 
The  potato  ranks  with  maize  and  tobacco  as  one  of  the 
plants  which  thrive  in  many  different  climates.  Al- 
though native  in  the  tropics,  it  is  an  important  crop  in 
Canada. 

Conditions  of  Growth.  The  potato  was  introduced  long 
ago  into  the  Philippines,  but  it  has  not  been  well  culti- 
vated, and  therefore  has  never  become  an  important  crop. 
Except  on  very  light  or  well-drained  soil,  it  can  be  grown 
only  in  the  dry  season.  When  there  is  not  too  much 
water,  it  thrives  on  heavy  soil,  which  should  not  be  poor 
in  lime. 

Planting.  The  potato  tuber  is  not  a  root,  but  an  under- 
ground stem.  Its  nodes  are  marked  by  the  "  eyes." 
Branches  or  new  plants  can  grow  from  these,  just  as  from 


STARCH  PLANTS 


^7 


the  nodes  of  a  maniok  stem.  The  potato  is  propagated, 
therefore,  by  means  of  the  tubers.  It  is  best  to  select 
large,  smooth  ones.  The 
tubers  should  be  cut  into 
pieces  as  large  as  a  chico, 
and  each  piece  must  con- 
tain at  least  one  eye.  The 
irround  must  be  soft  to  a 
depth  of  20  cm  or  more ; 
large  tubers  cannot  possi- 
bly be  formed  in  hard 
ground.  The  potatoes  or 
pieces  are  planted  in  rows 
60  cm  apart,  and  placed  30 
cm  apart  in  each  row.  Un- 
less the  ground  is  very  wet, 
they  should  be  planted  12 
cm  deep,  and  covered  by 
soft  soil. 

Cultivation  and  Harvesting.  As  the  plants  grow,  the 
soil  must  be  cultivated  frequently,  to  keep  it  soft  and  to 
keep  down  the  weeds.  After  the  toj^s  become  20  cm 
or  more  high,  some  of  the  soil  between  the  rows  should  lie 
drawn  around  the  plants.  This  is  called  "hilling"  the 
plants.     The  leaves  turn  brown  when  the  crop  is  mature. 

In  the  garden  of  the  Normal  School,  good  jiotatoes 
ha\e  been  harxested  55  davs  after  j)lanting,  the  crop 
yielding  6  tons  to  the  hektar.  It  would  not  be  prof- 
itable to  raise  potatoes  in  the   Philijipines  as  a  source  of 


Fig.  67.     Potatoes 


88 


PHILIPPINE  AGRICULTURE 


starch ;  but  they  are  an  excellent  food,  for  which  there  Is 
a  good  local  market. 

ARROWROOT 

Climate.     Arrowroot  is  also  a  native  of  tropical  Amer- 
ica, but  it  is  now  cultivated  in  all  tropical  and  subtropical 

lands.  Although  a  plant  of 
warm  countries,  it  can  en- 
dure frost  at  about  the  time 
of  harvest.  Except  when 
young  and  growing  rapidly, 
it  also  endures  drought,  or 
dry  weather,  well. 

Culture.  Arrowroot  re- 
quires a  fairly  light  soil, 
cultivated  very  deep  and 
very  fine.  The  starch  of 
arrowroot  is  stored  in  rhi- 
zomes. A  rhizome  is  an 
underground  stem  which, 
instead  of  being  a  tuber,  like  the  potato,  is  long  and 
grows  horizontally.  About  three  months  before  plant- 
ing time,  the  largest  rhizomes  from  the  previous  crop 
are  planted  in  a  seed  bed.  These  produce  numerous 
branches,  which  are  ready  to  plant  when  as  -thick  as  a 
finger.  These  branches  are  planted  like  potatoes,  but 
not  hilled  so  high  in  cultivation. 

Harvesting.      It  takes  almost  a  year  for  arrowroot  to 
mature.     The    rhizomes  are  then  dug  up,  being  found 


Fiti.  68.     Arrowroot 


STARCH  PLANTS  89 

mostly  at  a  depth  of  30  to  45  cm.  The  arrowroot  yields 
the  highest  priced  starch,  but  it  produces  much  less  of 
it  than  do  potato  and  maniok. 

If  the  useless  part  of  the  plant  is  left  in  the  ground 
after  the  harvest,  this  crop  will  exhaust  the  soil  very 
slowly. 

In  what  parts  of  plants  is  starch  to  be  found? 

Name  several  starch  plants  that  are  to  be  found  in  the  Philippines. 
Which  are  the  most  important? 

What  kind  of  soil  does  maniok  require? 
How  is  maniok  propagated  ? 
For  what  are  potatoes  grown  in  the  Philippines? 
What  is  a  rhizome  ? 


CHAPTER  XI 

MAIZE 


History  of  Maize.  Maize  is  the  name  of  a  plant  whose 
Latin  name  is  Zea  Mais,  of  the  grass  family.  The  fruit 
of  this  plant  is  also  called  maize.    Although  little  is  known 


Fig.  69.     P'iekl  of  maize  under  cultivation 

about  where  maize  first  grew,  it  is  doubtless  a  native  of 
the  mountainous  part  of  tropical  America.  It  has  been 
very  long  in  cultivation,  and  was  the  staple  crop  of  the 
Indians  as  far  north  as  New  England  when  that  country 
was  first  visited  by  Europeans.  In  America  "corn," 
which  originally  meant  any  grain,  is  a  commoner  name 
than  maize  for  this  plant.  Several  hundred  varieties  of 
maize  have  been  developed  in  cultivation.  These  fall 
mostly  into  six  groups :  husk  maize,  tooth  maize,  starch 

90 


MAIZE 


91 


maize,  flint  maize,  sugar  maize,  and  popcorn.     Tlie  most 
important  group  is  starch   maize. 

General  Description.  Maize  is  a  great 
grass,  whose  lieight  varies  in  different 
varieties  from  60  cm  to  6  meters.  Ex- 
cept in  the  Chinese  "tree  corn,"  which 
is  a  variety  of  liusk  maize,  tlic  stem  is 
unbranched,  or,  rarely,  is  branclied  near 
the  base.  The  leaves  are  alternate,  in 
two  rows.  They  are  usually  rough 
on  the  upper  surface,  but  smooth  be- 
low. In  size  they  are  30  to  120  cm 
long,  and  5  to  12  cm  broad. 

Two  Kinds  of  Inflorescences.  T^xam- 
ine  carefully  the  picture  of  the  stalk 
of  maize,  and  you  will  notice  that  it 
has  two  different  clusters  of  flowers. 
Clusters  of  flowers  such  as  these  are 
called  inflorescences. 

One  cluster  or  inflorescence  grows 
from  the  top  of  the    stalk    and   forms 
the    tassel.      Since    all    these    flowers 
have  only  stamens  and  no  pistils,  this  cluster  is  called  the 
staminate  inflorescence. 

The  flowers  having  the  pistils  grow  in  clusters  along 
the  side  of  the  stalk  in  the  axils  of  the  leaves.  These 
clusters  are  called  the  j^istillate  inflorescences.  A  stalk 
may  have  from  one  to  three  pistillate  inflorescences. 

Each  pistillate  inflorescence  is  a  stout  stem,  or  axis, 


;.  70.  Stalk  of  maize 
sliouing  the  staminate 
inflori'scencL'  at  the  lop 
ami  tliree  pistillate  inflo- 
rescences in  the  leaf  axils 


92 


PHILIPPINE  AGRICULTURE 


stigma 


bearing  usually  eight  to  ten  rows  of  flowers.  Strictly 
speaking,  the  flowers  are  in  pairs ;  but  the  lower  of  each 
two  flowers  is  very  small  and  undeveloped,  while  the  other 
is  larger  and  apparently  alone.     The  flower  has  a  naked 

ovary,  and  an  exceedingly  long 
style.  The  styles  form  the  corn 
silk.  The  whole  inflorescence  is 
inclosed  by  numerous  bracts, 
which  make  up  the  husk.  The 
silk  comes  out  through  the  end 
of  the  husk.  As  the  fruit  ripens, 
the  axis  of  the  inflorescence  be- 
comes the  cob.  Each  grain  of 
maize  is  really  a  fruit,  the  whole 
"ear"  being  composed  of  the  cob 
and  very  many  single  fruits,  or 
kernels. 

Pollination.   Each  flower  of  the 
staminate  inflorescence  has  three 

Fig.  71.    E)iagram  of  the  pistillate    StamCUS,  whoSC  authcrS  are   huUg 
inflorescence  1        j.1  'in  1  •        1.I- 

by  the  middle,  and  sway  m  the 
wind.  The  pollen  is  carried  to  the  stigmas  below  chiefly 
by  the  wind,  but  insects  sometimes  carry  some  of  it.  A 
grain  of  pollen  must  fall  on  every  stigma,  for  no  ovary 
can  become  a  grain  of  corn  unless  its  stigma  is  pollinated 
(see  Glossary). 

The  wind  scatters  the  pollen  in  every  direction,  and 
almost  all  of  it  falls  on  the  ground.  When  maize  is 
planted  in  large  fields,  the  air  fills  with  pollen,  and  almost 


ovary 


MAIZE 


93 


every  stigma  is  sure  to  receive  some.  But  if  a  small 
number  of  plants  are  alone,  or  if  they  are  scattered 
sparsely  over  the  land,  there  will  be  so  little  pollen  in  the 
air  that  many  stigmas  will 
receive  none  of  it ;  then  the 
grains  will  be  scattered 
over  the  cob  instead  of  en- 
tirely covering  it. 

Sterile  Plants.  In  every 
field  some  plants  bear  no 
ears.  Plants  that  bear  no 
fruit  are  called  sterile. 
These  plants  are  valueless. 
By  scattering  their  pollen, 
these  plants  without  ears 
have  descendants,  which 
inherit  their  sterility.  In 
a  field  from  which  seed  is  to  be  taken,  the  top  of  eveiy 
sterile  plant  should  be  removed  before  its  pollen  is  scat- 
tered. In  this  way  the  sterile  plants  have  been  reduced 
in  a  single  year  from  8.1 1  per  cent  to  3.44  per  cent. 

How  tall  have  you  seen  maize  grow?  How  many  ears  have  you 
ever  seen  on  a  stalk ?  Which  inflorescence  appears  first  on  the  stalk? 
What  is  the  color  of  maize  "silk"?  Why  do  some  ears  have  only  few 
seeds?     How  many  rows  of  seeds  usually  grow  on  a  cob? 

Draw  a  stalk  of  maize  showing  inflorescences. 

Draw  the  flowers  of  maize,  and  name  the  ])arts. 

Uses  of  Maize.  Maize  is  useful  in  several  ways.  When 
milk-ripe —  that  is,  just  before  the  grain  hardens  —  it  is 


Flc.  72.  Kir  of  maize  inclosed  in  the  husk, 
an  ear  with  husk  partly  removed,  and 
two  cross  sections 


94  PHILIPPINE  AGRICULTURE 

cooked  and  eaten.  At  this  time  it  is  one  of  the  most 
nourishing  and  digestible  of  all  vegetables.  When  fully- 
ripe,  the  grain  is  ground  into  meal  and  used  as  food. 
This  also  is  very  nourishing. 

Corn  satisfies  our  need  for  nourishment  more  perfectly 
than  rice  does,  because  it  contains  more  fat  and  more 
proteid,  but  not  so  much  starch.  The  grain  is  used  for 
the  manufacture  of  starch.  Maize  is  largely  used  in 
making  alcoholic  liquor  and  for  other  purposes.  In 
America  the  fruit  of  maize  is  the  most  important  food 
for  beasts.  The  stalks  and  leaves  are  also  fed  to  cattle, 
and  are  called  fodder. 

Production.  According  to  a  rough  estimate  by  the 
Department  of  Agriculture  in  Washington,  the  pro- 
duction of  maize  in  the  world  is : 


Europe  . 
Asia 
Africa    . 
North  America 
South  America 
Australia 


350  million  bushels 

I  million  bushels 

15  million  bushels 

2300  million  bushels 

225  million  bushels 

10  million  bushels 


A  bushel  of  maize  is  25.4  kilos.  In  most  years  the 
United  States  produces  more  than  three  fourths  of  all  the 
maize  in  the  world.  This  crop  is  worth  2,500,000,000 
pesos  yearly  to  the  American  farmers.  Maize  is  grown 
in  all  parts  of  the  Philippines.  It  is  most  important  in 
Cebu  and  the  neighboring  islands  and  in  the  Cagayan 
valley  of  Luzon. 


MAIZE  95 

CONDITIONS   OF   GROWTH 

Range  of  Climate.  Maize  ranks  with  the  potato,  and 
before  tobacco,  as  a  plant  which  grows  under  the  widest 
range  of  chmates.  In  Canada  it  is  profitably  cultivated 
as  far  north  as  51°,  and  in  the  tropics  it  grows  in  Peru  at 
an  altitude  of  3500  meters.  Different  varieties,  of  course, 
fit  different  climates.  Some  varieties  mature  in  so  short 
a  time  as  75  days;  many  require  100  days,  and  some 
120  days. 

Corn  matures  most  favorably  during  hot  weather. 
There  is  no  part  of  the  Philippines  whose  climate  is 
not  suited  to  the  growth  of  some  varieties  of  maize. 
Maize  requires  much  light,  and  will  not  thrive  at  all  in 
the  shade.  Even  a  few  days  of  cloudy  weather  check  its 
growth. 

Rainfall  or  Irrigation  Essential.  Showers  are  especially 
favorable  to  the  growth  of  maize  while  it  is  still  young. 
To  produce  a  good  crop,  the  roots  must  take  up  an 
amount  of  water  equal  to  a  layer  15  to  25  cm  deep  over 
the  whole  field.  Of  course  thev  cannot  do  this  unless 
the  rainfall  is  much  greater  than  this,  or  unless  the  field 
is  irrigated.  A  rainfall  of  30  to  60  cm  is  desirable  dur- 
ing the  growth  of  maize.  Irrigation  is  very  helpful,  and 
in  a  moderately  dry  season  has  been  found  in  Louisiana 
to  increase  the  crop  100  per  cent. 

The  roots  of  maize  go  deei)er  into  the  ground  than  do 
those  of  any  other  common  annual  plant.  Therefore 
they  can  draw  water  from  deep  in  the  ground,  even   as 


96  PHILIPPINE  AGRICULTURE 

far  down  as  2  meters.  But  many  of  the  roots  grow  near 
the  surface,  and  the  deeper  roots  alone  cannot  keep  the 
plants  well  supplied.  Because  the  roots  go  deep  into 
the  soil,  and  so  loosen  and  open  the  deeper  layers  of 
earth,  maize  increases  the  water-holding  power  of  the 
soil.  It  has  been  found  in  Dakota  that  in  a  wet  sea- 
son wheat  produces  about  as  well  on  ground  which 
produced  wheat  the  year  before  as  on  ground  which 
produced  maize  ;  but  in  a  dry  season  land  which  had  pro- 
duced wheat  the  year  before  yielded  only  5  bushels  an 
acre,  while  wheat  following  maize  yielded  24.6  bushels. 

The  Soil  Required.  Maize  demands  a  deep,  and  not 
exceedingly  heavy,  soil.  It  will  never  yield  good  crops 
where  standing  water  comes  nearly  to  the  surface  of  the 
soil.  Its  soil  must  contain  some  sand.  Maize  should 
not  be  planted  on  very  poor  soil;  because,  while  some 
plants  will  yield  poor  crops  in  such  places,  maize  will 
usually  yield  none  at  all.  Maize  takes  much  potash  and 
phosphorus  from  the  soil.  It  has  been  found  in  Alabama 
that  by  plowing  under  some  leguminous  crop,  as  beans 
or  peas,  the  following  crop  of  maize  could  be  increased 
by  at  least  50  per  cent  and  sometimes  by  100  per  cent. 
The  plants  of  legumes  contain  the  minerals  that  maize 
uses  for  food. 

Fertilizers.  In  an  experiment  in  Cebu,  well-cultivated 
plants  yielded,  without  fertilizing,  38.12  hektoliters  per 
hektar;  fertilizing  with  manure  and  bone  ash  raised  the 
yield  to  57.32  hi.  The  average  crop  in  Cebu,  with 
ordinary  cultivation,  is  only  10  hi. 


MAIZE 


97 


CULTURE 


The  Seed.  The  first  step  in  maize  culture  is  to  secure 
the  best  possible  seed.  As  a  general  rule,  seed  should 
be  from  plants  grown  under  the  same  conditions  as  are 


Fk;.  73.    Several  varieties  of  mai/c 

present  where  it  is  to  be  planted.  If  it  is  obtained  from 
a  great  distance,  it  may  be  excellent  seed,  but  not  adapted 
to  the  local  conditions.  It  should  be  well  ripened  on  the 
parent  stalk. 

Seeds  should  be  taken  only  from  plants  with  more 
than  one  good  ear.  Good  ears  are  large,  and  covered  to 
the  end  with  regular  rows  of  kernels ;  and  the  kernels 
must  fit  closely  together.  In  good  ears,  the  grains  have 
75  per  cent  to  90  per  cent  as  much  bulk  as  the  cob. 

There  is  much  difference  between  varieties  of  corn. 
In  a  test  of  34  varieties  in  Indiana,  it  was  found  that 
there  were  differences  of  2,Z  ^^^)"^  in  the  time  needed  for 


98  PHILIPPINE  AGRICULTURE 

maturing,  and  differences  of  44  bushels  of  maize  and  3.5 

tons   of  fodder  in  the   crop  from    i   acre.     An  acre  is 

about  five  twelfths  of  i  hektar. 

In  an  experiment  at  Ilagan,  the  following  yields  were 

obtained: 

With  yellow  native  maize,  22.8  hi  per  ha. 
With  white  native,  30.6  hi  per  ha. 
With  horse-tooth,  41.2  hi  per  ha. 

Horse-tooth    is    the    commonest    European    starchy 
variety. 


Fig.  74.     Philippine  plow 

Preparing  the  Soil.      Before  the  maize  is  planted,  the 

ground  should  be  made  clean  and  reasonably  fine.     On 

good  maize  soil  very  deep  plowing  is  unprofitable.     The 

effect  of  plowing  to  different  depths  was  tested  in  Illinois. 

On  a  part  of  the  field  which  was  worked  shallowly  with 

a  disk-plow,  but  not  turned    over,  the    yield   was   56.4 

bushels  an  acre. 

Plowed  5  cm  deep,  the  yield  was  59.9  bushels. 

Plowed  10  cm  deep,  the  yield  was  69.4  bushels. 

Plowed  15  cm  deep,  the  yield  was  69.3  bushels. 

Plowed  20  cm  deep,  the  yield  was  71.7  bushels. 

In  this  case  it  was  unprofitable  to  plow  more  than  10  cm 
deep.  But  in  an  experiment  in  Cebu,  very  deep  plowing 
(subsoiling)  almost  doubled  the  yield. 


MAIZE 


99 


Fin.  75.    Modern  steam  gang  plow 

Preparing  the  Seed.  Before  seed  is  planted  in  a  field, 
its  germinating  power  should  be  tested  by  an  e.xj^erinient 
with  100  grains.  This  will  show  whether  or  not  it  is 
necessary  to  plant  more  than  are  wanted  to  grow.  If 
many  of  the  grains  do  not  germinate,  it  is  necessary  to 
plant  a  larger  amount  of  seed.  Just  before  planting,  the 
grain  should  be  put  for  five  minutes  into  water  at  a 
temperature  of  55°.  This  will  kill  all  fungus  spores,  and 
hasten  the  germination. 

Planting  the  Seed.  On  small  fields  the  grain  can  be 
planted  by  hand,  or  with  a  hand  planter;  but  except  on 
small  plots,  it  can  be  planted  so  much  more  rapidly  and 


lOO 


PHILIPPINE  AGRICULTURE 


regularly  with  a  seed  drill  that  the  latter  method  is  the 
cheaper. 

The  depth  to  which  the  grain  should  be  planted  de- 
pends  upon   the  wetness  of  the  soil,  and  the  weather. 

When  conditions  are  as  they 
should  be,  it  will  germinate 
well  and  grow  if  planted  8  cm 
deep.  In  wet  soil  the  plant- 
ing should  be  shallower.  If 
in  very  wet  soil,  the  grain 
will  germinate  best  if  planted 
only  2  cm  deep ;  but  maize 
so  shallowly  planted  will  not 
grow  well.  Therefore,  it  is 
best  not  to  plant  at  all  when 
the  soil  is  very  wet. 

Hills.  Maize  is  planted 
either  in  hills  or  drills.  A  hill 
is  made  up  of  several  plants 
in  a  group ;  it  should  be  perfectly  level  with  the  rest  of 
the  ground,  at  the  time  of  planting.  When  the  seed  is 
planted  in  hills  on  fairly  good  ground,  the  hills  should 
be  I  meter  apart.  There  should  be  3  plants  in  each 
hill ;  so  pull  out  all  plants  above  that  number,  letting  the 
best  ones  stand.  On  poor  ground,  it  may  be  better  to 
put  the  hills  farther  apart;  and  on  very  rich  ground  there 
may  be  4  plants  in  a  hill.  The  hills  should  be  in  straight 
rows  in  both  directions,  if  the  land  is  level.  If  the  land 
is  very  sloping,  the  hills  should  be  in  rows  which  keep 


Fig.  76.    Maize  in  the  Philippine  Nor- 
mal School  garden  —  cultivated 


MAIZE 


lOI 


at  the  same  level ;  this  keeps  the  soil  from  washing  away 
badly,  and  makes  cultivation  easier. 

Drills.  A  drill  is  a  row  of  single  plants,  at  uniform 
distances  apart.  A  machine  which  plants  seed  in  this 
way  is  also  called  a  drill.  If 
maize  is  drilled  into  good 
ground,  the  rows  should  be  i 
meter  apart,  and  the  plants 
35  cm  apart  in  each  row. 
The  directions  just  given  are 
for  planting  maize  for  its  fruit. 
If  it  is  planted  for  fodder,  the 
plants  should  be  about  one- 
third  as  far  apart. 

Cultivation.  It  is  very  im- 
portant that  maize  should  be 
cultivated  the  first  time  be- 
fore the  ground  has  time  to 
become. hard,  and  before  the 
weeds  get  well  started;  this  will  be  while  the  maize  is 
still  very  young.  Figure  ']']  shows  a  field  left  too  long 
before  its  first  cultivation.  Maize  does  not  require  deep 
cultivation  unless  the  soil  is  badlv  in  need  of  airin^:.  Five 
cm  is  usually  better  than  a  greater  depth.  Shallow  culti- 
vation is  not  only  easier,  but  it  is  likely  to  yield  a  25  per 
cent  larger  crop  than  very  deep  cultivation.  If  the 
weather  is  dry,  frequent  shallow  cultivation  helps  the  soil 
to  retain  its  water. 

In    wet    seasons,  cultivation    four    times    during   the 


Fig.  77.    Maize  in  tho  I'lulipiiinc  Nor- 
mal Scliool  garden  —  neglected 


102  PHILIPPINE  AGRICULTURE 

season  is  likely  to  give  the  largest  crop,  but  it  is  usually 
more  profitable  to  cultivate  only  three  times.  An  experi- 
ment in  New  Hampshire  showed  that  the  crop  was : 

1 7. 1  bushels  per  acre,  without  cultivation. 

69.7  bushels  per  acre,  deeply  cultivated,  5  times. 

79.1  bushels  per  acre,  shallowly  cultivated,  5  times. 

80.6  bushels  per  acre,  shallowly  cultivated,  14  times. 

When  the  soil  is  first  cultivated,  it  should  be  kept  flat; 
but  after  the  plants  are  a  meter  high,  it  is  better  to  throw 
the  soil  up  somewhat  around  them.  Healthy  maize 
grows  most  rapidly  during  the  week  or  two  after  it  is 
I  meter  high.  At  this  time  vigorous  plants  grow  more 
than  10  cm  in  a  day. 


CHAPTER    XII 


RICE 


Characteristics.  Rice  is  the  name  of  a  grass  and  of  its 
fruit.  The  botanical  name  of  this  grass  is  Oryza  saliva. 
Like  all  grasses,  rice  has  very  small 
flowers,  but  its  flowers  are  unlike 
those  of  most  grasses  in  having  six 
stamens.  Each  rice  plant  has  a 
cluster  of  shoots,  springing  together 
from  the  base,  and  growing  upward 
close  tocfether.  In  size,  the  different 
varieties  of  rice  are  very  unequal. 
Some  of  the  rice  in  Pangasinan  is  2 
meters  in  height ;  but  the  usual 
height  is  less  than  i  meter.  The 
roots  are  very  fine. 

History.  Rice  is  a  native  of 
swamps,  and  grows  in  all  the  coun- 
tries from  Australia  across  southern 
Asia  to  central  Africa.  It  was  first 
cultivated  in  India  or  southeastern 
Asia.  It  is  not  known  how  long  ago 
it  was  first  cultivated;  but  we  do  ^'"^^s-  n-<'  «f  Hce 
know  that  it  was  introduced  into  China  more  than  4700 
years  ago,  and  that  it  was  cultivated  in   Babylon  almost 


I04  PHILIPPINE  AGRICULTURE 

or  quite  as  early.  It  was  the  staple  cultivated  crop  of  all 
the  Malayan  region  before  the  time  of  Magellan. 

Varieties.  There  are  more  varieties  of  rice  than  of 
any  other  crop.  In  India  alone,  there  are  supposed  to 
be  more  than  a  thousand  kinds.  There  were  151  Philip- 
pine varieties  in  one  exhibit  at  the  Exposition  of  1895,  in 
Manila.  American  and  Japanese  rice  are  the  best  in  the 
world ;  of  course  there  are  many  varieties  in  each  of 
these  countries.  American  rice  sells  in  Europe  at  twice 
the  price  of  Indian  rice. 

Japan  exports  great  quantities  of  her  fine  rice,  and 
imports  more  still,  at  a  much  lower  price.  Therefore, 
by  raising  a  superior  variety,  the  Japanese  can  consume 
much  more  rice  than  they  produce,  without  the  added 
amounts  costing  them  anything.  Experiments  have 
shown  that  at  least  one  kind  of  Carolina  rice  will  grow  in 
Manila,  and  produce  a  better  rice  in  a  shorter  time  than 
any  kind  already  grown  here. 

Wild  Rice.  Wild  rice,  whether  it  is  native  or  escaped 
from  cultivation,  is  found  wherever  rice  is  cultivated.  It 
always  differs  from  the  cultivated  rice  in  having  fruit 
which  falls  to  the  ground  as  sOon  as  it  is  ripe.  Also,  the 
wild  rice  usually  has  long  awns,  or  bristles,  connected 
with  the  flowers;  the  shoots  are  prostrate  rather  than 
erect;  and  the  leaf-sheaths  are  swollen  up,  and  serve  as 
floats  when  the  water  rises. 

When  wild  rice  gets  into  a  field  with  cultivated  rice, 
its  seed  falls  to  the  ground  before  the  crop  is  gathered, 
and  so  is  lost.     Unless  it  is  killed  in  some  way,  this  wild 


RICE  105 

rice  seed  grows  the  next  season,  and  again  sows  its  seed, 
and  so  keeps  taking  more  and  more  room  in  the  field. 
Because  it  thrives  on  exactly  the  same  treatment  as  the 
cultivated  rice,  and  looks  much  like  it,  but  sows  all  its 
seed  in  the  field,  wild  rice  is  by  far  the  worst  weed  in 
rice  fields. 

Production.  Rice  is  a  very  important  crop  in  all  warm 
parts  of  the  world  except  tropical  America.  Its  greatest 
production  is  in  southeastern  Asia,  and  the  greatest  rice- 
exporting  cities  are  Rangoon  and  Saigon.  Java  sup- 
ports its  population  of  30,000,000  chiefly  on  rice,  and  still 
exports  a  great  deal.  In  the  United  States  the  produc- 
tion of  rice  is  increasing  very  rapidly;  Texas  is  the  fore- 
most state  in  its  production. 

In  the  Philippines,  every  province  produces  rice ; 
Pangasinan,  which  in  some  years  produces  as  much  as 
four  million  pesos  worth  more  than  it  uses,  has  the  first 
place.  Rice  has  been  imported  into  the  Philippines  the 
most  of  the  time  for  fifty  years. 

Value  and  Uses.  Rice  is  the  staple  or  chief  food  of 
the  people  from  the  lowlands  of  India  to  Japan  and 
Polynesia ;  it  is  probably  the  staple  food  of  more  human 
beings  than  is  any  other  one  grain.  A  great  deal  of  rice 
is  also  eaten  in  the  other  parts  of  the  world.  It  is  re- 
garded as  an  especially  good  staple  food  in  hot  countries, 
because  it  contains  very  little  fat. 

The  rice  grain  contains,  besides  the  ash,  about  12.8 
per  cent  of  water;  78.3  per  cent  of  starch;  7.3  per  cent  of 
proteid;  and  0.6  per  cent  of  fat  or  oil.      It  is  sometimes 


106  PHILIPPINE  AGRICULTURE 

used  as  a  source  of  starch,  but  rice  starch  is  neither 
the  cheapest  nor  the  finest.  Rice  is  sometimes  used 
as  a  medicine  for  dysentery;  and  water  in  which  rice 
has  been  cooked  is  commonly  used  in  this  way.  In 
most  countries  which  produce  it,  rice  is  used  in  making 
alcoholic  drinks.  The  straw  has  various  uses,  the  most 
important  of  which  is  as  a  fertilizer  on  the  fields  where 
it  grew.  Rice  straw  also  makes  a  fine  paper,  but  it  is 
not  the  source  of  most  so-called  rice  paper. 

CONDITIONS    OF   GROWTH 

Heat.  Different  varieties  of  rice  make  very  different 
demands  on  the  climate.  Most  varieties  require  at  least 
four  months  of  hot  weather,  with  an  average  temperature 
above  22°.  Cold  nights  cannot  be  endured,  even  though 
the  days  be  warm  and  bright.  Some  varieties  require 
six  months  to  mature,  while  a  few  poor  ones  mature  in 
three  months  after  planting.  There  are  other  varieties, 
of  excellent  quality,  which  endure  a  uniformly  lower 
temperature ;  but  these  require  a  long  season  and  very 
careful  treatment,  and  so  are  an  expensive  crop.  Rice  is 
cultivated  northward  to  32°  in  America,  and  farther  in 
Japan.  Its  upward  limit  in  the  Philippines  is  an  altitude 
of  about  1500  meters.  No  crop  requires  more  light  than 
rice ;  it  will  endure  no  shading  at  all. 

Soil.  If  it  is  properly  supplied  with  water,  the  quality 
of  the  soil  makes  less  difference  to  rice  than  to  most 
crops.  It  usually  does  best  on  rather  light  soils  ;  but  the 
soil  must  of  course  not  be  so  sandy  as  to  be  deficient  in 


RICE 


107 


P'IG.  79.    Terraced  rice  paddicb  of  the  Igorots 

food  for  the  plant.  Phosphorus  is  the  food  of  which  rice 
most  often  has  too  httle. 

Water.  With  regard  to  its  need  of  water,  two  sorts  of 
rice  are  distinguished  —  upland  rice  and  water  rice. 
The  upland  rice  thrives  on  soil  which  is  light  and  well 
aired.  It  does  not  require  wetter  soil  than  other  crops  ; 
but  it  does  require  moist  air.  Where  the  air  is  dry,  it 
produces  so  little  fruit  that  it  is  better  to  plant  some 
other  kind  of  grain. 

The  water  rice  requires  more  water  than  does  any 
other  imjjortant  crop.  This  water  is  almost  always  sup- 
plied and  regulated  by  irrigation.  The  ways  in  which 
the  water  is  supplied,  the  times  at  which  it  is  put  on,  and 
the  length  of  time  it  is  left,  are  very  different  in  different 


I08  PHILIPPINE  AGRICULTURE 

places.  Standing  water  is  always  left  on  the  ground  a 
considerable  part  of  the  time  while  the  rice  is  growing. 
When  the  water  gets  too  hot,  or  becomes  full  of  harmful 
plants  or  animals,  it  must  be  run  off.  After  the  time  of 
flowering,  the  fields  are  permitted  to  become  dry.  While 
the  rice  is  ripening,  dryness  helps  the  maturing  of  the 
grain,  and  makes  it  easy  to  harvest  it.  Each  plot  or 
field  of  rice  must  be  very  level ;  for  otherwise  the  differ- 
ent parts  will  not  be  equally  watered,  and  will  not  mature 
together. 

CULTURE 

Methods  of  Planting.  Ground  in  which  rice  is  to  be 
planted  must  always  be  made  thoroughly  fine  and 
smooth.  It  is  not  necessary  that  the  ground  should  be 
worked  especially  deep,  but  no  crop  needs  finer  soil. 
There  are  three  very  different  systems  of  planting  rice : 
scattering  or  broadcasting  the  seed,  drilling  the  seed,  and 
transplanting. 

Broadcasting.  Broadcasting  is  the  Italian  method  of 
planting,  and  is  used  with  upland  rice  in  almost  all 
countries.  It  is  the  experience  of  farmers  in  the  Philip- 
pines, however,  that  water  rice  sown  broadcast  requires 
1 6  per  cent  more  seed,  and  will  yield  at  least  20  per  cent 
less  than  could  be  obtained  from  the  same  ground  by 
transplanting. 

Transplanting.  Transplanting  is  known  as  the  Chinese 
method  of  rice  culture.  It  is  in  general  use  in  the  Philip- 
pines and  throughout  the  Orient.  The  seeds  are  planted 
in  thoroughly  worked   and  enriched   seed    beds.     This 


RICE 


109 


method  of  cultivation  makes  it  possible  for  the  rice  to 
be  germinating  and  growing  while  the  paddies,  or  fields, 
are  being  prepared.  But  it  can  be  used  only  on  a  small 
scale  and  where  human  labor  is  very  cheap. 


I'K;.  80.     Women  transplanting  rice  plants  in  the  lyorot  country 

The  paddies  are  usually  cultivated  in  the  state  of  soft 
mud,  which  prevents  the  use  of  any  beast  except  the 
carabao.  Rice  plants  of  the  ordinary  size  are  set  in  the 
paddies  about  10  cm  apart  in  each  direction. 

Drilling.  Drilling  in  the  seed  is  the  American  method, 
first  developed  in  South  Carolina,  and  now  used  on  a 
very  large  scale  in  Texas,  Machines  arc  used  which 
plant  the  rice  seed  in  straight  rows,  at  uniform  distances 
apart.     Water  is  then  turned  on  the  fields  and  left  until 


no  PHILIPPINE  AGRICULTURE 

the  first  leaves  appear.  The  field  is  then  left  without 
water  until  the  plants  develop  the  second  leaves,  or 
sometimes  until  they  are  20  cm  in  height,  when  the 
water  is  turned  on  again  and  renewed  as  often  as  neces- 
sary, perhaps  once  in  8  days,  until  after  flowering  time. 


Fig.  81.    An  old  way  of  threshing  rice  in  the  Philippines 

This  method  of  culture  is  very  much  cheaper  than 
transplanting ;  and,  since  but  little  rice  fails  to  germinate, 
gives  very  nearly  as  large  returns.  American  planters 
expect  to  harvest  80  grains  for  every  grain  planted. 
The  large  drilling  machines  used  in  Texas,  which  plant 
many  rows  at  once,  could  not  be  used  on  the  small  pad- 
dies in  the  Philippines.  But  there  are  cheap  hand  drills 
which  save  a  great  deal  of  labor,  and  can  be  used  on  the 
smallest  plots. 

Harvesting  in  Texas.  The  rice  is  also  harvested  in 
Texas  by  great  machines,  each  cutting  a  strip  several 
meters  wide,  and  threshing  and  sacking  it  at  the  same 


RICE 


III 


Vvc.  82.    A  modern  rice  thresher  in  the  Philijjpines 

time.  These  machines  are  very  expensive,  and  cannot 
be  used  on  small  fields,  such  as  are  found  here.  But  it 
is  possible  in  many  places  here  to  use  threshing  ma- 
chines after  the  rice  is  cut.  One  such  machine  can 
thresh  all  the  rice  in  a  large  community.  Every  laborer 
in  the  Texas  rice  fields  is  paid  three  pesos  a  day,  or 
more.  And  yet,  by  the  use  of  machinery,  rice  is  pro- 
duced there  more  cheaply  than  is  possible  in  the  Philip- 
pines. 


CHAPTER   XIII 


SUGAR-CANE 


Sugar  is  obtained  from  many  different  plants,  but  two 
alone,  the  sugar  beet,  which  grows  in  the  temperate  zones, 
and  the  sugar-cane,  furnish  all  the  sugar 
that  is  used  as  an  article  of  commerce. 

Description  of  the  Cane.  The  cane  is 
a  large  grass,  usually  2  or  3  meters,  but 
sometimes  as  much  as  6  meters,  in 
height.  The  erect  stems  are  3  to  5  cm 
in  thickness.  Like  all  stems  they  are 
made  of  alternate  nodes  and  internodes. 
At  each  node  is  a  leaf,  and  in  the  leaf's 
axil  is  a  bud,  which  is  called  an  eye. 
Roots  also  can  spring  from  the  nodes, 
but  do  so  only  near  the  ground. 

The  internodes  vary  in  length  in  dif- 
ferent varieties  of  cane,  from  5  to  7  cm  to 
20  to  22  cm  in  length.  Since  it  is  in 
the  fleshy  internodes,  not  in  the  hard 
nodes,  that  the  sugary  sap  is  found,  it  is 
well  for  the  internodes  to  be  long.  The 
internodes  in  the  middle  are  longer  than  those  near  the 
ends. 

Besides  the  erect  stems,  there  are  underground  stems, 


Fig.  83.  Stalk  of  cane 
showing  nodes  and 
internodes 


SUGAR  CANE  II3 

which  differ  from  the  erect  ones  in  having  very  short 
internodes.  The  erect  stems  do  not  usually  branch, 
unless  near  the  base,  but  the  underground  ones  branch 
freely,  and  give  rise  to  clusters  of  erect  ones. 

The  topmost  internode  sometimes  grows  out  rapidly 
to  a  length  of  90  to  120  cm,  bearing  at  its  top  a  panicle  of 
flowers.  Most  of  the  cultivated  varieties  never  flower, 
and  those  which  do  flower  rarely  bear  any  seed.  The  seed 
is  never  used  to  reproduce  the  plant,  except  for  the  sake 
of  getting  new  varieties. 

History  of  the  Plant.  The  botanical  name  of  cane  is 
Saccliariim  officmaricm.  The  plant  does  not  grow  wild, 
and  it  is  very  probable  that  it  is  only  a  cultivated  form 
of  an  uncultivated  grass  common  in  India  and  Malaya. 
This  is  Saccharum  spontanenyn,  which  is  called  talahib 
in  Tagalog  and  tigbao  in  Bisayan.  The  earliest  cultiva- 
tion of  cane  was  certainly  in  India,  and  was  exceedingly 
ancient.  The  plant  was  introduced  into  China  at  least 
sixteen  hundred  years  ago,  and  was  grown  all  over  the 
Malayan  region  before  the  arrival  of  Europeans.  The 
Moors  took  it  into  Europe  in  the  eighth  century;  and 
the  Spaniards  took  it  to  the  West  Indies  in  the  six- 
teenth century. 

Varieties  of  Cane.  The  cultivated  varieties  of  cane  are 
exceedingly  numerous,  and  the  same  ones  have  different 
names  in  different  countries.  Among  the  most  impor- 
tant varieties  are  the  following : 

I.  Bourbon  cane,  also  called  Yellow  Otaheite  :  This 
is  a   big,   rich   cane,   usually    straw-yellow   in   color.      It 


114  PHILIPPINE  AGRICULTURE 

is  said  to  degenerate,   or   become   poor,  in    long  culti- 
vation ;    but  this  is  probably  due  to  bad  treatment. 

2.  Otaheite  Ribbon  cane,  or  Striped  Tanna :  This 
also  is  a  rich  cane,  but  the  sugar  is  not  always  perfectly 
white.  The  internodes  are  yellowish,  with  bluish  or 
purple  stripes.  This  and  the  preceding  variety  are  the 
most  popular  varieties  in  almost  all  countries. 

3.  Java  Transparent:  This  is  a  quick-growing  cane, 
with  internodes  10  to  20  cm  long,  which  bear  blood-red 
stripes.  It  is  an  excellent  variety  for  light  ground. 
Selangore  is  a  similar  or  identical  cane,  common  in 
Malaya. 

4.  Black  Java :  This  has  purplish  or  black  inter- 
nodes 8  to  1 5  cm  long ;  or,  toward  the  top,  it  may  be 
striped.  It  endures  bad  treatment  better  than  other 
canes,  and  produces  a  sweet  sap.  But  the  sap  is  not 
abundant,  and  the  cane  is  too  hard  to  mill  very  well. 

5.  Elephant  cane :  There  are  several  canes  with  this 
name,  of  which  the  Cochin  China  Elephant  cane  is  the 
largest  and  best  known.  This  wants  a  rich  soil,  and  is 
too  brittle  to  mill  well. 

PRODUCTION 

Production  in  the  World.  The  amount  of  cane  sugar 
produced  in  the  world  has  been : 

Year  Tons  (iooo  kilograms) 

1853  .  .  1,260,400 

i860  .  .  1,340,980 

1870  .  .  1,740,493 


SUGAR-CANE 


115 


Year 
1880 
1889 
1900 


Tons  (iooo  kilograms) 
1,988,889 

2453'342 
3,350,000 


These  figures  do  not  show  how  rapidly  the  use  of 
sugar  has  increased;  for  the  beet  sugar  produced  in  1878 
was  only  half  as  much  as  the  cane  sugar,  but  was  twice 
as  much  as  the  cane  sugar  in  1900.  The  amounts  of 
cane  sugar  produced  in  some  places  in  1900  were  these: 


Flack 

Tons 

Louisiana 

2  70,000 

Porto  Rico 

85,000 

Hawaii    . 

312,000 

Cuba 

600,000 

Java 

700,000 

Philippines 

65,000 

Production  in  the  Philippines.  The  slight  production  in 
the  Philippines  was  a  result  of  war.  The  export  from 
the  Philippines  at  different  times  has  been: 


Pkkioi) 

Tons 

1852  to  1863  average 

55,000 

1863  to  1872 

71,000 

1873  to  1882 

I  36,000 

1883  to  1892 

187,000 

1893  (the  maximum) 

262,000 

1898   . 

177,000 

1900   . 

65,000 

1902    . 

99,000 

1906    . 

123,790 

Il6  PHILIPPINE  AGRICULTURE 

The  foremost  of  the  islands  in  the  production  of  sugar 
is  Negros,  and  the  foremost  province  in  Luzon  for  its 
production  is  Pampanga.  The  United  States  consumes 
more  than  half  of  the  cane  sugar  from  the  world's 
markets. 

CONDITIONS  OF  GROWTH 

Heat.  Cane*  is  distinctly  a  tropical  plant.  It  grows 
north  as  far  as  32°  in  the  United  States,  and  beyond  36° 
in  Spain ;  but  its  cultivation  in  these  places  would  be 
unprofitable  if  it  were  not  for  protective  tariffs,  which 
enable  those  who  grow  it  to  get  high  prices  for  all  they 
produce.  Frost  kills  cane  promptly.  The  temperature 
should  be  high  and  uniform.  In  the  Philippines  it  grows 
at  an  altitude  of  at  least  1200  meters,  but  it  is  not  raised 
on  a  large  scale  except  in  the  lowlands. 

Moisture.  A  moist  air  is  usually  regarded  as  very 
necessary  for  the  vigorous  growth  of  cane;  and  the  cli- 
mate of  tropical  islands,  because  it  is  uniformly  warm  and 
moist,  is  said  to  be  the  best  possible  for  sugar-cane. 
Unless  the  cane  is  irrigated,  it  will  not  reach  its  best  de- 
velopment where  the  rainfall  is  less  than  2  meters  during 
the  year,  nor  where  there  is  any  dry  season  while  the 
cane  is  growing.  A  drought  before  the  growth  is  com- 
plete, results  in  plants  with  little  sap,  which  is  poor  in 
sugar.  However,  a  dry  season  while  the  cane  is  matur- 
ing is  advantageous,  if  the  crop  is  gathered  before  it 
turns  brown. 

Soil.  Good  sugar  soil  must  contain  abundant  lime,  ni- 
trogen, and  phosphorus.     It  is  possible  for  a  soil  to  con- 


SUGAR-CANE 


117 


tain  too  much  nitrogen,  but  this  very  rarely  happens. 
Some  potassium  must,  of  course,  be  present  (see  page  26) ; 
but  too  much  potassium  or  sodium  makes  a  soil  bad  for 
sugar.  If  a  soil  contains  a  little  too  much  of  these,  some 
can  be  removed  by  growing  maize  on  it  for  a  year  or  two. 
When  sugar  is  grown  for  a  long  time  on  any  plot  of 
ground,  it  is  likely  to  exhaust  the  lime.  This 
has  happened  on  some  Philippine  plantations. 
Semler,  in  his  book  on  tropical  agriculture, 
describes  a  soil  from  Camarines  as  the  finest 
possible  for  sugar. 

CULTURE 

Propagation.  Cane  is  always  propagated  on 
plantations  in  one  way,  by  burying  a  part  of 
a  grown  stem  in  the  ground.  This  piece 
is  usually  laid  horizontally,  in  well-broken 
ground,  and  buried  under  less  than  a  deci- 
meter of  soil. 

One  method  is  to  use  whole  stems  for  "seed,"  fi(:.84.  Apex  of 
and  to  lay  them  end  to  end  in  the  rows;  but  ufree  ^ Toics 
this  method  wastes  a  great  deal  of  sugar.  The  '^"'^  ^^^^ 
better  way  is  to  use  only  three  nodes  from  the  top  of  the 
cane,  where  the  internodes  are  short  and  contain  very 
little  sugar,  v  These  tops  are  placed  about  80  cm  apart  in 
the  rows,  and  the  rows  are  i  meter  to  1 20  cm  apart. 
Small  cane  may  be  planted  closer  than  this,  and  very 
large  cane  should  be  farther  ajDart.  The  rows  are 
sometimes   made  farther  apart  to  permit  cultivation  by 


Il8  PHILIPPINE  AGRICULTURE 

machinery.     In  the  Philippines,  cane  is  usually  planted 
much  more  closely  than  this. 

Selection  of  Cane  Seed.  The  cane  used  for  "seed  "  should 
be  selected  from  the  most  productive  plants,  and  should 
always  be  the  first  year's  growth  from  the  planted  cane. 
Because  many  planters  do  not  select  their  "  seed,"  their 
cane  is  not  as  good  after  a  few  years  as  at  first.  Any, 
good  cane  will  degenerate  unless  the  seed-cane  is  carefully 
chosen. 

Cultivation.  The  young  leaves  appear  above  the 
ground  within  two  weeks  after  planting,  and  it  may  be 
necessary  to  cultivate  immediately.  The  amount  of  later 
cultivation  needed  by  cane  depends  altogether  on  the 
conditions.  Of  course,  the  ground  must  be  kept  reason- 
ably soft  and  free  from  weeds.  In  most  places  it  is  suffi- 
cient if  the  cane  is  well  cultivated  twice  within  the  first 
three  or  four  months. 

Irrigation.  The  need  of  irrigation  is  likewise  depend- 
ent on  conditions.  As  a  general  rule  it  pays  to  irrigate 
cane  wherever  the  annual  rainfall  is  less  than  2  meters, 
and  also  wherever  the  rainfall  is  not  well  distributed 
through  the  growing  season.  Although  growing  cane 
needs  water  constantly,  it  cannot  endure  standing  water 
about  its  roots.  In  many  places  the  same  ground  which 
is  irrigated  must  also  be  well  drained.  The  irrigating 
canals  and  drainage  ditches  may  also  be  used  to  float  the 
cut  stems  on  boats  or  rafts  to  the  mill. 

Maturing  Cane.  When  growth  is  practically  done,  and 
the  cane  is  maturing,  the  soil  should  become  dry,  both 


SUGAR-CANE 


119 


because  dryness  hastens  maturing,  and  because  unneces- 
sary water  in  the  sap  adds  greatly  to  the  cost  of  evaporat- 
ing it.  Cane  is  mature  when  many  leave*  begin  to  turn 
yellow  or  brown.  After  this  time  the  sugar  decreases 
rapidly;  and  before  this  time  there  is  considerable 
glucose  present 
with  the  real  cane 
sugar.  This  glu- 
cose is  a  kind  of 
sugar  which  not 
only  will  not  itself 
crystallize  when 
the  sap  is  evapo- 
rated, butalsopre- 
vents  the  crystal- 
lization of  an  equal 
amount  of  the  cane  sugar.  Sodium  and  potassium  in  the 
sap  also  interfere  with  the  crystallization  of  the  sugar. 

Ratoon  Crops.  Except  under  very  favorable  conditions, 
cane  is  not  ready  to  cut  until  fourteen  months  after 
planting.  After  the  erect  stems  are  cut,  a  new  crop  will 
grow  from  the  underground  stems.  This  is  called  the 
first  ratoon  crop.  Second  and  third  ratoon  crops  can  be 
raised  in  the  same  way.  In  Java  and  also  in  Pampanga, 
it  is  customary  to  replant  the  cane  for  each  crop.  In 
most  countries  it  is  planted  about  every  third  year;  but 
on  one  Hawaiian  plantation  cane  was  cut  for  nine  years 
without  replanting,  and  with  excellent  results.  The 
ratoon  croi)s  usually  mature   within   a  year. 


Flc.  85.     Philippine  sugar  mill  driven  by  wafer  power 


I20 


PHILIPPINE  AGRICULTURE 


Plan  of  Plantation.  When  two  ratoons  are  used,  a 
plantation  should  be  divided  into  at  least  three  parts. 
One  of  these 'is  replanted  each  year,  and  the  stem-tops 
of  the  preceding  year's  planting  are  available  as  seed.    A 

still  better  arrangement  is  to 
divide  the  plantation  into  four 
parts,  and  let  one  part  rest,  or 
raise  a  different  crop  on  it 
each  year. 

Sugar  Making.  The  cut 
cane,  stripped  of  its  leaves,  is 
carried  to  the  mill  and 
crushed,  and  the  sap  is  evapo- 
rated. The  crushed  stems 
are  treated  with  water,  and 
crushed  again ;  and  some- 
times this  is  done  a  third 
time,  and  all  the  water 
squeezed  out  is  evaporated. 
The  sugar  obtained  in  this 
way  is  crude,  or  coarse  and 
brown,  and  must  be  refined 
to  make  the  fine  white  Qrranu- 
lated  sugar  in  common  use. 
Waste.  Some  sugar  is  always  left  in  the  stems  of  cane, 
and  with  poor  machinery  a  great  deal  of  sugar  is  lost 
in  this  way.  The  waste  from  the  mill,  left  after  the 
stems  are  crushed  as  dry  as  possible,  is  called  bagasse. 
Bagasse  is  a  good  fertilizer,  usually  needing  also  only  a 


Fig.  86.    Clump  of  cane  in  flower 


SUGAR-CANE  121 

little  phosphorus  and  lime  to  keep  up  the  full  fertility 
of  the  soil.  Bagasse  is  often  used  as  a  fuel  to  run  the 
mill.  The  ashes  are  then  used  for  a  fertilizer.  Nitrogen, 
phosphorus,  and  lime  should  be  added  to  the  ashes  to 
keep  the  soil  from  becoming  worn  out. 


CHAPTER   XIV 

THE   COCONUT 

A  Member  of  the  Palm  Family.  The  coconut  belongs 
to  the  palm  family  of  plants,  which  includes  also  the 
palma  brava,  betel  nut,  nipa,  buri,  and  cabo  negro.  Its 
botanical  name  is  Cacos  nucifera.  There  are  about 
thirty-five  other  species  in  the  genus  Cocos,  and  all 
are  natives  of  America.  It  is,  therefore,  almost  certain 
that  the  coconut  came  from  America ;  but  it  was  found 
in  very  ancient  times  on  the  tropical  coasts  of  the  Old 
World.  The  nuts  often  fall  into  the  sea  and  float,  and 
if  they  are  thrown  ashore  before  too  long  a  time,  they 


Fig.  87.    Some  things  made  from  coconut  shells 

can  grow.      In  this  way  the  plant   can  spread  to  new 
shores. 

Uses  of  the  Coconut.  The  coconut  is  useful  in  more 
ways  than  any  other  tree  in  the  world.  The  natives 
of  Polynesia  are  said  to  use  it  in  more  than  a  hundred 
different  ways.    The  most  important  commercial  product 


THE  COCONUT  1 23 

of  this  tree  is  copra,  the  dried  meat  of  the  fruit.  The 
fiber  of  the  husk,  called  coir,  is  another  very  valuable 
product.  In  the  Philippines  the  leaves  and  trunk  are 
used  in  building  houses,  the  husks  and  shells  for  fuel, 
and  the  shells  in  making  household  utensils.  There 
are  still  other  local  uses  for  various  parts  of  the  tree. 
The  rich  sap,  fermented,  is  tuba.  The  oil  obtained 
from  copra  has  many  local  uses. 

The  Roots.  The  roots  of  the  coconut  are  exceedingly 
numerous ;  sometimes  as  many  as  eight  thousand  grow 
from  the  base  of  one  trunk.  They  are  all  very  slender 
and  elastic.  They  grow  only  near  the  surface  of  the 
ground,  and,  in  general,  grow  straight  ahead  in  the 
direction  in  which  they  leave  the  stem.  The  longest  are 
about  7  meters  long  in  sand,  or  about  5  meters  long 
in  firm  soil.  The  root  branches  grow  at  right  angles 
to  the  main  roots. 

The  plant  is  without  really  fibrous  roots,  and  without 
root  hairs.  Only  the  youngest  parts  of  the  roots,  just 
behind  the  tips,  absorb  water.  The  old  parts  are  incased 
in  a  thick,  hard  shell,  which  prevents  their  losing  the 
water  absorbed  by  the  young  parts.  The  short,  sharp, 
white  roots  scattered  over  the  old  ones  are  breathing 
organs. 

The  Trunk.  The  trunk  of  the  coconut  is  very  hard  on 
the  outside,  but  softer  within.  It  is  so  tough  that  no  or- 
dinary wind  can  break  it.  The  trunk  is  enlarged  at  the 
base  so  as  to  have  place  for  the  attachment  of  its  many 
roots. 


124 


PHILIPPINE  AGRICULTURE 


After  the  first  few  years,  the  stem  does  not  increase  in 
thickness,  but  it  grows  in  height  as  long  as  it  lives.  It 
usually  grows  straight  upward ;    but  if  one  side  receives 

more  light  than  the  other, 
it  bends  toward  the  side 
most  lighted.   , 

Leaves.  An  old,  strong 
tree  has  twenty-five  to 
thirty-five  leaves,  each  5 
to  7  meters  long,  with 
about  eighty  pairs  of  leaf- 
lets. The  leaflets  are 
folded  downward.  There 
is  a  hinge  along  each  side 
of  the  midrib.  When  the 
leaf  transpires  faster  than 
it  can  get  water,  the  hinge 
causes  the  edges  to  fall 
and  fold  nearer  together, 
and  this  checks  the  loss  of 
water.  Each  leaf  lives  a 
Like  the   stem,  the  leaves 


Fig.  88.  Coconut  trees  on  the  sea-shore,  Pa- 
cific coast  of  Tayabas  province,  showing  the 
enlarged  base  and  numerous  roots 


little   less  than  two  years. 
are  very  tough. 

Flowers  and  Fruit.  The  flowers  are  borne  in  dense 
panicles,  one  panicle  in  the  axil  of  each  leaf.  The 
flowers  do  not  open  until  more  than  six  months  after  the 
first  appearance  of  the  leaf  in  whose  axil  they  grow. 
The  staminate  and  pistillate  flowers  are  distinct;  and  in 
each  panicle  the  staminate  flowers  wither  and  fall  off 


THE  COCONUT 


125 


before  the  pistillate  flowers  are  mature.  The  pollen  is 
carried  by  insects.  It  takes  nine  months  or  more  for 
the  fruit  to  ripen. 

Describe  fully  the  fruit  of  the 
coconut. 

Find  the  average  weight  of  five 
coconuts. 

What  is  the  average  weight  of 
the  husks? 

What  is  the  average  weight  of 
the  fresh  meat  ? 

What  part  of  this  weight  is  left 
when  the  meat  is  air-dried  ? 


Flowers  and  fruit  of  the  coconut  tree 


PRODUCTION 

The  product  of  the 
coconut  is  marketed  in  so  many  forms  that  it  cannot  be 
measured  in  any  one  way.  The  comparative  product 
can  be  judged,  though,  by  the  acreage.  The  number  of 
hektars  of  co'conuts  in  some  lands  in  1896  was  : 


Ceylon 

India  . 

Java  and  Sumatra 

Polynesia    . 

South  America  . 

Central  America 


2  7 1 ,000 
146,000 
92,000 
1 04,000 
208,000 
104,000 


According  to  the  Census  of  1903,  the  number  of  hek- 
tars of  coconut  plantations  in  the  Philippines  in  1902 
was    148,245. 


126  PHILIPPINE  AGRICULTURE 

Coconuts  and  their  products  yield  the  chief  exports 
from  Ceylon,  Polynesia,  and  a  large  part  of  Malaya,  and 
are  a  very  important  crop  of  every  tropical  country.  In 
the  Philippines,  the  best  coconut  district  is  about  the 
base  of  Mt.  Banahao,  in-  Laguna  and  Tayabas.  Copra 
ranks  third  in  value  among  the  Philippine  exports,  and 
is  increasing  in  importance. 

CONDITIONS   OF   GROWTH 

Heat.  The  coconut  is  distinctly  a  plant  of  the  torrid 
zone.  It  grows  as  far  north  as  Florida  and  produces 
fruit,  but  not  enough  to  be  of  any  value.  It  must  have 
a  very  uniform  temperature,  which  must  average  about 
2  2°  for  the  year.  An  altitude  of  500  meters  is  probably 
the  highest  limit  of  its  profitable  culture,  even  for  local 
use,  in  the  Philippines. 

In  these  islands  the  coconut  is  never  injured  by  heat, 
however  great.  In  direct  sunshine  the  leaves  become 
much  hotter  than  the  air  about  them,  and  this  greatly 
increases  the  transpiration.  Once  when  the  temperature 
at  San  Ramon  was  28.3°  in  the  shade,  and  31.5°  in  the 
sun,  that  of  a  coconut  leaf  in  the  sun  was  38°. 

Light.  The  coconut  needs  much  light,  as  we'll  as  a 
high  temperature.  Without  more  light  than  most 
plants  need,  it  will  bear  but  little  fruit.  The  tree  thrives 
best  on  the  seashore,  where  it  receives  more  light  than 
in  any  other  place. 

Tell,  in  figures,  what  effect  the  amount  of  light  has  on  the  production 
of  nuts.     The  answer  is  given  in  Chapter  V,  Plants  and  Light. 


THE  COCONUT 


127 


Moisture.  Since  it  has  no  fine  roots  and  no  root 
hairs,  the  coconut  cannot  get  the  water  it  needs,  except 
from  a  very  moist  soil.      It  needs  a  uniformly  distributed 


Ku;.  90.    Coconut  groves  along  the  Dumaka  River,  layabas  province,  with  nipa  at  tlie 

water's  edge 

rainfall  of  as  much  as  120  cm  in  the  year;  or  else  it  must 
be  irrio^ated;  or  there  must  be  more  water  in  the  2:round 
than  is  due  to  the  local  rainfall.  Alons:  sea  beaches 
there  is  always  water  in  the  ground,  which  flows  slowly 
from  higher  land  through  the  soil  to  the  sea.  linough 
of  this  water  moves  upward  through  loose  soil  so  that 
trees  in  this  situation  are  less  injured  by  dry  seasons 
than  are  trees  anywhere  else. 


128  PHILIPPINE  AGRICULTURE 

Injury  caused  by  Drought.  A  dry  season  injures  the 
coconut  for  a  longer  time  than  it  does  any  other  crop 
which  is  not  killed  by  it.  When  the  ground  about  the 
roots  becomes  dry,  the  roots  cease  to  grow,  and  the  ab- 
sorbing surface  decreases.  The  resulting  loss  of  water 
promptly  checks  the  growth  of  the  young  leaves,  and  of 
the  branches  which  bear  the  nuts.  It  does  not  delay  the 
ripening  of  the  nuts  already  growing;  therefore,  it  is  nine 
months  or  more  after  a  drought  begins,  before  the  crop 
is  injured  by  it. 

When  the  rains  begin  after  a  drought,  the  roots  begin 
to  grow  again;  after  they  become  active,  the  leaves  can 
begin  to  be  so.  Since  it  is  usually  eighteen  months  from 
the  first  appearance  of  a  leaf  to  the  ripening  of  the  nuts 
in  its  axil,  the  injury  done  by  a  drought  is  not  all  shown 
until  at  least  eighteen  months  after  the  drought  ends. 

Dryness  hurts  the  coconut  in  several  ways  which 
there  is  not  time  to  study  here.  A  bad  dry  season  only 
as  often  as  every  other  year  will  keep  the  crop  down  all 
the  time  to  40  per  cent  of  what  it  ought  to  be.  There- 
fore, coconuts  cannot  be  grown  profitably  witliout  irriga- 
tion, where  vei"y  dry  seasons  occur. 

The  Soil.     While  the  coconut  must  have  a  moist  soil, 
its  roots  will  not  grow  into  soil  full  of  water;  and  if  they  * 
are  covered  too  long  by  water,  they  die. 

The  coconut  will  grow  in  poor  soil,  but  it  will  produce 
few  nuts  there.  It  produces  fine  crops  on  poor  beach 
soil,  because  the  water  which  the  roots  take  up  has  come 
through  richer  soil,  and  is  well  supplied  with  food. 


THE  COCONUT 


129 


CULTURE 

Selection  of  Seeds.  Coconuts  to  be  used  as  seed  should 
be  picked  from  trees  which  are  conspicuous  among  their 
neighbors  growing  under  tlie  same  conditions  for  produc- 
ing large  nuts,  and  many  of  them.     There  is  no  reason 


Fu;.  91.     Coconuts  gcrininating  in  seed  bod 


for  selecting  seed  from  prolific  trees  which  are  prolific 
simply  because  they  grow  in  especially  good  places;  for 
then  the  productiveness  is  not  a  character  of  the  tree,  but 
of  the  place,  and  the  place  cannot  be  inherited.  It  is 
best  not  to  let  the  nuts  of  an  especially  good  tree  fall  to 
the  ground,  because  some  of  them  will  crack.  Neither 
is  it  a  good  plan  to  select  large  nuts  out  of  a  pile;  for  a 
tree  with  very  few  nuts  often  has  especially  large  ones. 

Germination.  Coconut  seed  are  germinated  above 
ground  and  are  not  planted  until  the  roots  and  j)lumule 
appear.  Seed  nuts  may  be  hung  up  in  bunches  in  wet 
weather  or  stacked  under  a  shelter  and  watered;  but  the 


I30 


PHILIPPINE  AGRICULTURE 


best  and  easiest  method  is  usually  to  lay  them  on  the 
ground  in  the  shade.  In  dry  weather,  water  must  occa- 
sionally be  thrown  over  them.  The  trees  are  likely  to 
be  more  robust  if  the  nuts  are  laid  on  their  sides,  instead 
of  being  stood  on  end.     The  young  shoot  will  be  more 


Fig.  92.    Husking  coconuts 


likely  to  be  straight,  if,  where  it  is  to  come  out,  a  little 
of  the  outside  of  the  husk  be  removed.  Some  nuts  ger- 
minate within  a  month,  others  need  four  or  five  months. 

Planting  and  Cultivation.  It  is  best  to  plant  the  nuts 
in  their  permanent  places  before  the  sprout  is  50  cm 
high,  and  before  they  become  fastened  to  the  ground 
by  a  strong  set  of  roots;  otherwise  breaking  these  roots 
will  seriously  check  the  growth.  When  they  are  planted, 
a  part  of  the  nut  should  be  left  above  the  ground.  In 
large  groves  the  trees  ought  not  to  be  less  than  8  meters 
apart. 

Cultivation,  at  least  to  the  extent  of  keeping  the  ground 


THE  COCONUT 


131 


clean,  will  pay  for  itself  in  the  early  maturing  of  the 
trees. 

The  ground  used  for  coconuts  is  often  very  poor,  and 
should  be  enriched  in  every  way  possible.  While  the 
trees  are  young,  other  crops  can  be  grown  with  the 
coconuts,  but  care 
must  be  taken  not 
to  make  the  ground 
poor  in  this  way. 
Notches  should  not 
be  cut  in  young 
trees;  nor  should 
they  be  deeper  in 
the  older  trees  than 
is  really  necessary. 

The  Crop.    Trees 
sometimes   bear 

,  Fig.  93.     Method  of  collecting  tuba  in  bamboo  cylinders 

many  nuts  by  the 

time  they  are  five  years  old,  and  a  good  crop  should  be 
obtained  in  about  seven  years  after  planting.  A  tree 
ought  never  to  bear  less  than  50  nuts  in  a  year;  and 
twice  as  large  an  average  as  this  is  possible.  At  San 
Ramon,  icxx)  nuts  are  expected  to  yield  5  piculs  of 
copra;  but  in  Laguna  they  do  not  yield  more  than 
3.5  piculs.  ;\fter  the  nuts  arc  cut,  there  is  likely  to  be 
a  slight  increase  in  the  oil,  if  they  are  not  opened  at  once; 
but  it  is  not  safe  to  leave  them  more  than  one  month. 

The  Products.     The  work  of  opening  the  nuts  and  dry- 
ing the  copra  is  too  well  known  in  the  Philippines  to  need 


132  PHILIPPINE  AGRICULTURE 

description  here.  If  the  copra  must  be  dried  by  fire  in- 
stead of  by  the  sunshine,  it  should  be  kept  free  from  smoke. 
The  collection  of  tuba  is  even  better  known  in  the  Philip- 
pines than  the  making  of  copra.  Coir  is  a  valuable  prod- 
uct which  is  usually  wasted.  It  is  a  remarkably  elastic 
fiber,  but  that  of  old  nuts  is  very  coarse  and  harsh.  It 
must  be  extracted  by  machinery,  and  this  cannot  be  done 
profitably  on  a  small  scale. 


CHAPTER  XV 

FIBER  PLANTS 
ABACA 


The  Banana  Family.  Abaca  is  the  name  of  a  plant, 
Musa  tcxtilis,  and  of  the  fiber  extracted  from  this  plant. 
Musa  is  the  banana  genus,  and  abaca  and  banana  plants 


Fig.  94.     Field  of  abac;!  in  Albay 


are  very  much  alike.  They  have  no  veiy  large  roots, 
but  many  small  ones,  which  do  not  run  very  deeply  into 
the  ground.  There  is  a  short,  branching,  underground 
stem,  but  the  real  erect  stems  do  not  become  tall  until  the 


134  PHILIPPINE  AGRICULTURE 

plant  is  ready  to  blossom.  Young  erect  shoots,  or  suck- 
ers, grow  at  all  times  from  the  underground  stem,  so  that 
an  old  plant  has  ten  to  thirty  shoots  of  all  ages,  in  a 
cluster. 

What  looks  like  a  stem  is  made  up  of  the  leaf  bases. 
These  are  broad  and  overlapping.  They  grow  up,  one 
inside  another,  until  they  make  an  apparent  trunk  30  or 
40  cm  in  diameter.  The  real  stem,  which  grows  rapidly 
up  through  the  middle  of  the  false  stem,  is  usually  less 
than  8  cm  in  diameter,  and  contains  no  useful  fibers. 
The  flowers  of  abaca  are  borne  in  clusters  on  a  thick 
axis.  The  clusters  nearer  the  base  bear  the  pistillate 
flowers ;  they  blossom  before  the  staminate  flowers  open. 
The  pollen  is  carried  by  insects. 

Abaca  Fiber  and  its  Uses.  The  fruit  of  abaca  is  smaller 
than  that  of  most  bananas,  and  contains  many  large  seed. 
The  fibers  are  found  in  the  leaf  bases  which  make  up  the 
false  stem.  In  the  outer  part  of  each  base,  the  fibers  are 
more  numerous,  and  their  cells  are  much  longer  and 
thicker-walled  than  those  of  the  inside  fibers.  The  out- 
side fibers  are  therefore  a  great  deal  stronger. 

The  principal  use  of  the  abaca  fiber  is  in  making  cord- 
age ;  for  this  use  it  is  the  best  fiber  produced  in  large 
quantities  in  the  world.  Abaca  is  very  strong,  but  so 
light  that  it  will  float  on  water.  For  these  reasons,  the 
cordage  used  on  ships  in  all  countries  is  usually  made  of  it. 

In  the  Philippines,  the  finest  abaca  is  used  in  making 
cloth,  most  of  which  is  called  sinamay.  Far  more  sina- 
may  is  made  than  any  other  cloth.     Exceedingly  strong 


FIBER  PLANTS 


135 


and  heavy  cloth  is  made  of  abaca  in  some  places.  Abacd 
is  also  used  to  make  paper.  Some  of  this  is  coarse,  and 
some  is  so  fine  that  it  is  the  only  paper  which  can  be 


Fic.  95.     Taking  abacA  fiber  to  market 

used  like  silk,  to  wind  the  wires  of  induction  coils.  All 
paper  made  from  abaca  is  very  strong.  In  America  and 
Europe,  old,  worn-out  ropes  made  of  abaca  fiber  are 
bought  and  used  to  make  paper. 

Production  and  Export.  Abaca  is  a  monopoly  of  the 
Philippine  Islands.  It  is  native  here,  and  all  of  it  has 
always  been  grown  here.  /Xttenipts  have  been  made  to 
introduce  it  into  Borneo,  India,  and  elsewhere,  but  in 
these  places  it  has  been  found  too  expensive  to  cultivate, 


136 


PHILIPPINE  AGRICULTURE 


or  the  product  has  been  of  poor  quaUty.  Some  abaca  has 
been  exported  from  the  Philippines  for  nearly  a  century. 
The  following  figures  show  the  amounts  (in  tons)  ex- 
ported in  the  years  indicated : 


I8I8 

•    41 

1870 

31426 

1825 

.  276 

1880 

50,482 

1840  . 

8,502 

1890 

67,864 

1850  . 

8,561 

1900 

39438 

i860 

30,388 

1906 

110,399 

Since  1887  abaca  has  been  the 
most  valuable  export  every  year  ex- 
cept 1892  and  1893,  when  sugar 
held  first  place.  Abaca  is  now  more 
valuable  than  all  other  exports  com- 
bined, being  worth  nearly  fifty  mil- 
lion pesos  a  year.  The  Census  of 
1903  shows  the  following  to  be  the 
principal  abaca-producing  prov- 
;:l  inces,  beginning  with  the  most  im- 
portant :  Leyte,  Albay,  Camarines, 
Samar,  Misamis,  Surigao,  and  Ta- 
yabas.  Ladronism  has  since  de- 
prived Leyte  of  first  place.  Min- 
danao and  Negros  are  rapidly 
increasing  their  production. 

Conditions  of  Growth.      Abaca  is 
a  plant  wuth  enormous  leaves,  and 
roots  which  do  not  reach  deeply  into  the  ground.     There- 


FlG.  96. 


Primitive  abaca  press 
in  Albay 


FIBER  PLANTS  i^y 

fore,  if  the  soil,  or  even  the  air,  is  dry,  and  the  plant  is  ex- 
posed to  strong  light  or  wind,  it  transpires  too  rapidly, 
and  wilts.  Constant  moisture  of  both  soil  and  air  is  ab- 
solutely necessary  to  its  successful  production.  Take  the 
maps  which  show  the  rainfall  in  the  Philippines,  and  you 
will  see  that  the  great  abaca  provinces  have  a  rather 
heavy  rainfall,  and  7io  dry  season. 

Shade.  Where  there  is  a  moderately  dry  season,  abaca 
can  be  protected  against  it  by  planting  it  in  sheltered 
places,  as  in  valleys  and  ravines,  and  by  the  use  of  shade 
trees.  These  make  cultivation  difficult,  and  deprive  the 
plant  of  light.  Where  there  is  moisture  enough  at  all 
times,  abaca  can  be  grown  on  plains  without  shade ;  and 
then  it  will  naturally  grow  more  rapidly  and  produce  more 
fiber  than  shaded  plants  can  ever  do.  In  Albay,  12 
piculs  of  fiber  is  regarded  as  the  greatest  production  of 
a  thousand  shaded  plants  in  a  year;  but  in  Davao,  a 
crop  of  16  and  even  18  piculs  is  produced  as  the  average 
from  each  thousand  plants  on  whole  plantations  of  trees 
grown  without  shade. 

Temperature.  In  the  abaca  provinces  the  temperature 
is  rather  high  and  very  uniform.  An  average  tempera- 
ture below  22°  would  probably  not  permit  its  thrifty 
growth.  It  is  cultivated  at  altitudes  as  great  as  1000 
meters;  but  it  is  much  more  productive  near  sea  level, 
unless  the  climate  is  too  dry  there. 

Soil.  Like  other  crops,  abaca  pays  for  rich  soil  by 
large  crops.  The  soil  must  be  moist.  But  it  must  also 
be  well  drained,  for  abaca  roots  die  quickly   if  tlie  soil 


138 


PHILIPPINE  AGRICULTURE 


becomes  so  full  of  water  that  they  cannot  breathe.     The 
plants  require  much  potassium;    therefore,  ashes  are  a 

good  fertilizer.  It  is 
probable  that  abaca 
wants  a  soil  rich  in 
lime. 

Reproduction  from 

Suckers.      Abaca  is 

reproduced     chiefly 

by  transplanting 

the    young    suckers 

which  spring  up  around  every 

plant.     Old  butts,  from  which 

the  trunks  have  just  been  cut, 

can  also  be  transplanted. 

Reproduction    from    Seed. 

Abaca  can  also  be  reproduced 

by  seed.     It    requires    a   year 

longer  for  plants  grown  from 

seed  to  reach  maturity;  but  in 

some  places  suckers  are  hard 

to  get.     If  seeds  are  used,  they 

must  be  from  fruit  which  has 

not    become    overripe.      The 

seeds  should  be  washed  well, 

soaked  for  several  hours,  and 

Fig.  97.   Bunch  of  abaci  fruit        planted  2  cm  dccp  and  1 5  cm 

apart,  in  rich,  fine,  shaded  ground.     In  less  than  a  year 

they   are    ready  to    be    transplanted.      Care   should    be 


FIliER   PLANTS  1 39 

taken  to  get  suckers  or  seeds  from  the  best  available 
abaca. 

Varieties.  In  every  community  there  are  several 
varieties  in  cultivation.  The  names  of  these  varieties 
are  mostly  local.  The  varieties  vary  greatly  in  size,  pro- 
ductiveness, ease  of  stripping,  and  in  color,  fineness,  and 
strength  of  fiber. 

Shade  Trees.  Where  shade  trees  must  be  used,  those 
should  be  selected  which  will  either  produce  something 
of  value  or  which 
will  improve  the  soil. 
Ilangilang,  pili,  and 
the  various  fruit  trees 
are  useful  for  their 
products.  The  leg- 
umes are  the  best  to 
improve     the    soil. 

The     trees     must    not  ^"'9«-    Abaci  fmit  showing  seeds 

only  furnish  shade,  but  they  must  also  be  strong  enough 
not  to  break  in  the  wind.  Narra  and  ipil  are  legu- 
minous trees  which  produce  valuable  wood  and  are 
not  easily  broken  by  wind.  Other  strong  legumes 
used  in  this  way  are  madrecacao  and  tamarind.  The 
dapdap  has  the  best  effect  on  the  soil,  because  its 
wood  decays  quickly.  Both  the  madrecacao  and  the 
common  spiny  dajxlap  lose  their  leaves  in  the  driest  sea- 
son, when  the  abaca  most  needs  shade.  There  is  a 
spineless  form  of  dapdap  which  retains  its  leaves  at  all 
times,  but  it  is  less  strong.      It  usually  makes   no  seed. 


140 


PHILIPPINE  AGRICULTURE 


reproduced     by 


sticking. 


branches    into    the 


and    is 
ground. 

Cultivation.  Where  it  can  be  done,  the  ground  in 
which  abaca  is  to  be  planted  should  be  well  plowed  and 
cultivated.  On  ground  which  has  just  been  cleared,  this 
is  impossible,  but  the  ground  around  each  plant  must  be 

made  fine.  The  plants  of  the  large 
kinds  must,  of  course,  be  planted 
farther  apart  than  those  of  the  small 
ones.  The  plants  of  a  variety- 
growing  to  a  moderate  size  should 
be  at  least  2  meters  apart  on  open 
ground.  They  should  always  be  in 
straight  rows,  so  that  they  can  be 
cultivated  easily. 

We  have  already  learned,  in  the 
chapter  on  Plants  and  Water  (see 
page  42),  how  cultivation  helps 
abaca  to  endure  drought.  It  also 
makes  it  grow  rapidly  and  mature 
early.  From  twenty  to  thirty 
months  is  usually  the  time  between 
planting  suckers  and  maturity. 
But  well-cultivated  abaca,  the  suckers  being  of  only  the 
usual  size,  has  produced  a  large  crop  that  matured  in  six- 
teen months.  Abaca  is  mature  when  clusters  of  flowers 
appear,  and  must  be  cut  before  the  fruit  begins  to  ripen. 

Harvesting.  When  it  is  mature,  the  abaca  stalk  is  cut 
just  above  the  ground  with  a  sharp  bolo,  making  a  cut 


Fig.  99.     Removing  the  outer 
strips  from  the  leaf  stems 


FIBER  PLANTS 


141 


surface  which  is  sloping,  not  horizontal,  in  order  that 
water  shall  not  stand  on  it.  The  leaves  are  then  cut  off 
the  stalk.  The  individual  leaf  bases  are  peeled  off,  one 
at  a  time,  and  the  outer  part  of  each  is  removed  in  strips. 
It  is  these  strips  from  which  the  fiber  is  extracted,  while 
the  softer  inner  part  of  each  leaf  base  is  thrown  away. 
It  is  not  desirable,  even  if  possible,  to  strip  the  whole 
leaf  base,  the  inside 
with  the  outside,  be- 
cause the  weaker  fiber 
of  the  inner  part  will 
make  the  whole  product 
weaker  than  it  ought 
to  be.  All  of  the  parts 
thrown  away  in  cutting 
the  trunk  and  stripping 
the  fiber  are  valuable  as 
fertilizers. 

Stripping.  Stripping 
is  almost  always  done 
by  pulling  the  strip  between  a  fixed  block  and  a  knife 
pressed  against  it  by  a  spring.  There  are  now  several 
machines  which  will  strip  abaca;  and  except  on  small 
fields,  stripping  by  hand  will  soon  cease.  It  probably 
makes  no  difference  whether  the  knives  used  are  made 
of  wood,  copper,  or  iron,  so  long  as  they  have  perfectly 
smooth  edges.  With  a  rough  edge,  abaca  can  be  stripped 
more  easily,  and  the  product  is  heavier;  hwi  such  fiber  is 
not  clean,  and  it  will  not  bring  a  high  price.     The  sale  of 


Fig.  100.     Splitting  abacA,  before  siri|)ping 


142 


PHILIPPINE  AGRICULTURE 


a  great  deal  of  dirty  abaca  hurts  the  reputation  and  price 
of  all  abaca. 

Drying.  After  it  is  stripped,  the  fiber  should  be  dried 
in  the  sun,  as  quickly  as  possible.  The  whitest  fiber  is 
made  by  the  cleanest  stripping  and  quickest  drying. 


i  iij.  ioi.     Stripping  abaci  in  Albay 

The  characters  of  good  abaca  are :  first,  strength ; 
second,  cleanness  and  lightness ;  third,  whiteness ;  fourth, 
uniformity  in  length ;  fifth,  length.  Fiber  almost  six 
meters  long  has  been  stripped  in  Mindanao. 

Use  of  Waste.  The  waste  from  stripping  contains  a 
great  deal  of  fiber  which  is  valuable  for  paper  making. 
If  much  abaca  is  stripped  in  one  place,  it  will  be  more 
convenient  to  get  the  waste  together  to  sell ;  but  more 


FIBER  PLANTS 


143 


of  the  plant's  food  will  be  returned  to  the  soil,  and  so 
the  latter  will  be  kept  richer,  if  the  abaca  is  stripped  and 
the  waste  scattered  in  the  field. 


«   V       K 


ti?ll#''<»J*i^.:,^\->P 


vA  J 


Fk;.  I02.     Drying  abacd  fiber  at  San  Ramon,  Mindanao 

New  shoots  of  abaca  are  constantly  becoming  mature 
in  a  field.  It  is  usually  found  convenient  to  cut  each 
part  of  a  field  about  four  times  a  year. 


MAGUEY 

Crops  for  Arid  Lands.  Almost  all  tropical  plants  re- 
quire rich,  moist  land,  and  thrive  only  with  fairly  damp 
air.  For  this  reason  dry  ground  is  regarded  as  poor, 
and  a  dry  climate  as  unfitted  to  agriculture.  Since  dry 
land  is  poor  and  consequently  cheap,  it  is  especially  im- 
portant to  know  how  it  can  be  used.  There  are  two 
Philippine  crops  which  endure  dry  soil  and  air;  these 


144  PHILIPPINE  AGRICULTURE 

are  maguey  and  pina.  Both  are  raised  here  for  their 
fiber,  and  produce  the  strongest  fiber  where  the  air  and 
soil  are  not  too  moist.     Both  also  have  other  uses. 


Fig.  103.     Maguey  plants 

Kinds  of  Agave.  The  plant  called  maguey  in  the 
Philippines  is  Agave  cantula.  There  are  many  species  of 
Agave.  All  are  natives  of  Mexico  and  Central  America, 
but  they  now  grow  in  all  tropical  countries.  Most  of 
the  agave  fiber  is  produced  in  Yucatan,  from  the  species 
named  Agave  rigida  ;  it  is  called  sisal.  This  plant  has 
been  introduced  into  the  Philippines  by  the  Bureau  of 
Agriculture.  The  plant  called  maguey  in  Mexico  is 
Agave  americana,  which  produces  a  very  poor  fiber,  but 
is  grown  to  obtain  a  drink  called  pulque.  When  pulque 
is  distilled,  it  makes  mescal.  The  maguey  of  the  Phil- 
ippines is  cultivated  in  India  also;  but  the  Philippine 
fiber  is  better  than  the  Indian. 

Planting   and    Cultivation.     Maguey  is  usually  propa- 


FIBER  PLANTS  1 45 

gated  by  suckers,  but  sometimes  by  bulbils,  which  are 
branch  buds  formed  in  the  axils.  These  may  be  planted 
directly  into  the  field,  or  kept  for  a  year  in  seed  beds. 
In  the  field  the  bulbils  are  usually  planted  a  little  more 
than  one  meter  apart  in  each  direction ;  but  it  would  be 
better  to  double  this  distance  in  places  sheltered  from 
the  wind. 

When  they  are  planted,  and  for  the  following  two  or 
three  months,  the  soil  should  be  well  cultivated  and 
moist.  After  this,  the  hard,  spiny  leaves  make  culti- 
vation impossible,  and  the  plants  are  very  little  injured 
by  drought.  They  will  not  grow  in  soil  where  the  water 
stands  near  the  surface.  Dry  air  slightly  retards  the 
growth,  but  it  slightly  increases  the  fiber.  A  great  deal 
of  sunshine  is  especially  beneficial. 

Yield.  In  the  Philippines  a  maguey  plant  yields 
hardly  twenty  leaves  a  year,  each  weighing  400  grams, 
of  which  3  per  cent  to  4  per  cent  is  fiber.  The  Yucatan 
sisal  yields  more  leaves,  each  weighing  one  kilogram, 
and  richer  in  fiber. 

The  fiber  is  extracted  by  stripping  or  by  retting.  Un- 
less machines  are  used,  the  former  is  hard  work.  Excel- 
lent machines  for  cleaninc:  sisal  fiber  have  lonir  been  in 
use  in  Yucatan.  Retting  consists  in  soaking  the  leaves 
until  the  softer  parts  can  easily  be  removed.  If  soaked 
too  long,  the  fiber  is  valueless.  Drying  must  be  as  quick 
as  possible. 

Describe  the  maguey  plant  fully  and  carefully.  How  old  is  maguey 
when  it   blossoms  ?     How  often   does  a  plant   blossom  ?     How  old   is 


146 


PHILIPPINE  AGRICULTURE 


maguey  before  the  first  crop  is  produced  ?  What  provinces  produce 
much  maguey  ?  Do  these  provinces  produce  much  abaca  ?  Why  ? 
How  many  pounds  of  fiber  will  i  hektar  of  maguey  produce  if  the  plants 
are  i  meter  apart  ?     Where  is  Yucatan  ? 

PINEAPPLE 

The  pineapple  is  a  native  of  tropical  America,  but  it 
is  now  found  both  cultivated  and  uncultivated  in  all 
tropical  countries.     Its  botanical  name  is  Anmiassa  sa- 


FlG.  104.     Pineapple  plants  in  fruit 

Hva.  In  most  places  it  is  raised  for  its  fruit,  and  the 
fiber  is  relatively  unimportant.  There  are  fully  one 
hundred  varieties  in  cultivation,  the  fruit  varying  in 
weight  when  well  grown  from  i  to  15  kilos,  and  in  color 
being  purplish,  scarlet,  dark  red,  yellow,  green,  and  white. 


FIBER   PLANTS  1 47 

Propagation.     Pineapples  are  propagated  in  four  ways: 

1.  By  seed,  taking  from  10  to  12  years  before  maturity. 

2.  By  the  fruit  apex,  taking  from  2  to  5  years  before 
maturity. 

3.  By  stem  shoots,  taking  from  12  to  18  months 
before  maturity. 

4.  By  "root"  suckers,  taking  from  8  to  12  months  be- 
fore maturity. 

Besides  being  slow,  propagation  by  seed  is  uncertain, 
and  some  of  the  finest  varieties  are  seedless.  Nine  to 
twenty  shoots  or  suckers  are  formed  by  each  mature 
plant,  on  the  stem  above  and  below  the  ground.  All 
suckers  which  come  from  the  stems  below  the  surface  of 
the  ground  are  called  "  root  "  suckers. 

Planting.  The  young  plants  should  be  set  out  in  the 
field  in  regular  rows.  They  may  be  i  meter  apart  in 
each  direction ;  or,  for  convenience  of  cultivation,  the 
rows  may  be  120  cm  apart,  and  the  plants  80  cm  apart  in 
each  row. 

Pineapples  for  Fruit.  When  pineapples  are  raised  for 
fruit,  the  soil  must  be  deep,  rich,  and  well  cultivated,  and 
never  exceedingly  dry.  By  good  cultivation  while  they 
are  young,  pineapples  which  would  not  weigh  more  than 
2  kilos  if  uncultivated,  can  be  made  to  grow  to  10  kilos. 
While  the  fruit  is  maturing,  dry  air  and  bright  sunshine 
are  necessary  to  produce  the  finest  odor  and  flavor. 
Dust  is  yery  injurious;  therefore,  tliey  must  not  be  cul- 
tivated except  while  young.  Buds  and  suckers  should 
not  be  allowed  to  form  before  the  fruit  ripens. 


148 


PHILIPPINE  AGRICULTURE 


Pineapples  for  Fiber.  Pineapples  can  well  be  grown 
for  fiber  on  poorer  and  drier  ground,  and  cultivation  is 
then  less  necessary.  In  no  case  will  this  plant  grow  in 
ground  where  water  stands.  The  soil  must  be  rich  in 
lime ;  and  the  plant  is  not  injured  by  much  clay. 

Describe  a  pineapple  plant,  and  draw  it.  What  parts  of  the  plant 
make  up  the  fruit  ?     For  what  purposes  is  the  fiber  used  ? 

OTHER   FIBER    PLANTS 

Cotton.  The  most  important  of  the  fibers  in  the  world 
is  cotton.  Little  cotton  is  raised  in  the  Philippines,  ex- 
cept in  Ilocos  Norte,  Ilocos  Sur,  and  Union.  The  cot- 
ton genus  is  Gossypium,  and  at    least  four  species  are 


Fig.  105.     Cotton  field  in  the  United  Stales,  showing  cotton-picking  machine 

sources  of  valuable  fiber;  these  species  have,  become 
very  mixed  through  cultivation.  All  of  them  were  prob- 
ably naturally  perennial.     The  most  valuable  cottons  are 


FIBER  PLANTS  1 49 

Sea  Island  and  Egyptian,  but  they  are  not  the  most  pro- 
ductive kinds. 

Cultivation  and  Uses.  Cotton  will  grow  well  in  most 
soils  which  are  not  exceedingly  wet  or  shallow.  Much 
lime  improves  the  soil.  The  commonest  cotton  is  a 
small  bush.  Its  seed  are  sown  in  rows  a  meter  apart. 
Many  seeds  are  planted,  and  the  young  plants  are  after- 
ward thinned  out  to  about  80  cm  apart.  Fine  weather 
is  necessaiy  for  the  ripening  and  harvesting  of  the  crop. 
The  seeds  are  valuable  for  the  oil  they  contain.  The 
fibers  are  hairs  on  the  seed. 

Of  what  use  to  plants  are  the  hairs  of  the  seed?  In  what  forms  is 
cotton  imported  into  the  Philipi)ines? 

Kapok.  The  kapok,  or  silk-cotton  tree,  is  a  large  tree, 
common  in  towns  in  the  PhiHppines.  Its  fiber,  like  that 
of  cotton,  consists  of  tufts  of  hair;  these  are  not  borne  on 
the  seed,  but  the  seed  is  embedded  in  them.  Its  fiber  is 
too  curly  to  be  used  in  making  cloth ;  but  it  is  excellent 
for  stuffing  pillows,  and  for  similar  uses. 

Jute,  Rattan,  etc.  There  are  many  other  Philippine 
plants  whose  fibers  have  some  value.  Among  these  are 
jute,  a  weed  in  many  of  the  towns;  ramie,  a  wild  bush  ; 
bow-string  hemp,  which  is  often  planted  for  ornament 
along  streets  and  walks;  and  the  various  kinds  of  rattan, 
or  bejuco.  The  fiber  of  the  coconut  husk  is  spoken  of 
in  another  chapter.  Good  paper  can  be  made  of  cogon, 
bamboo,  and  many  other  Philippine  plants. 


CHAPTER   XVI 

TOBACCO 

History.  Tobacco  is  the  plant  known  botanically  as 
Nicotiana  Tabacum.  It  belongs,  with  the  tomato  and 
eggplant,  in  the  potato  famil)^  It  is  a  native  of  Amer- 
ica, and  probably  of  the  warmer  parts  of  that  conti- 
nent, but  was  found  in  cultivation  as  far  north  as  Vir- 
ginia by  the  European  discoverers.  There  are  about 
fifty  other  species  of  Nicotiana.  Of  these,  only  one, 
that  which  produces  the  Syrian  tobacco,  has  any  agri- 
cultural importance. 

The  Tobacco  Plant.  The  common  tobacco  has  a  glan- 
dular stem  I  to  2  meters  in  height,  which  becomes 
woody  as  the  plant  matures.  The  stem  branches  freely 
from  the  axils ;  and  as  it  matures  it  sends  up  fresh 
branches  from  the  base.  The  prompt  removal  of  all 
branches,  as  they  start  to  grow,  not  only  strengthens  the 
leaves  and  hastens  their  maturity,  but  is  said  to  make 
them  lighter  in  color. 

The  stem  bears  from  eight  to  twenty  leaves  on  very 
short  petioles.  The  larger  leaves  are  35  to  50  cm  long, 
and  7  to  15  cm  broad.  On  the  leaves  are  two  kinds  of 
glandular  hairs  —  long  ones,  made  of  several  cells,  and 
others  only   one  cell  long.     Many  kinds  of  leaves  are 

150 


TOBACCO 


151 


used  to  adulterate  tobacco,  but  not  one  of  these  has  the 
two  kinds  of  hairs. 


Fl<"i.  106.     Flower  of  the  tobacco  plant 

The  flowers  are  borne  in  a  loose  cluster  at  the  top  of 
the  stem.  Flowering  lasts  about  two  weeks.  The  fruit 
is  a  small,  pointed  capsule,  containing  a  great  many  very 
small  seeds. 

Nicotine.  The  plant  contains  several  peculiar  sub- 
stances, among  which  is  a  poison  named  nicotine.  Il: 
is  this  substance  which  produces  the  physiological 
effects  of  tobacco.  As  a  general  rule,  the  varieties  of 
tobacco  with  the  most  and  finest  aroma  contain  the 
least  nicotine.  Therefore,  the  most  valuable  tobaccos 
are  usually  the  least  injurious.  However,  there  are 
many  exceptions  to  this  rule. 


152  PHILfPFINE  AGRICULTURE 

Taxation  on  Tobacco.  Aside  from  a  very  limited  me- 
dicinal use,  tobacco  is  altogether  a  luxury.  It  is  the 
most  important  crop  in  the  world  which  is  not  valuable 
as  food  or  clothing.  It  is  chewed  and  snuffed,  and 
smoked  in  pipes,  cigarettes,  and  cigars. 

Because  it  is  an  article  of  luxury,  tobacco  is  usually 
handled  at  a  large  profit.  Most  countries  tax  it  very 
heavily,  and  some  make  it  a  government  monopoly. 
It  was  a  monopoly  in  the  Philippines  from  1781  to 
1882,  the  whole  tobacco  business  belonging  to  the  gov- 
ernment during  this  time.  In  1882,  the  profit  on  this 
business  paid  half  of  all  the  expenses  of  the  govern- 
ment. In  the  United  States  the  government  taxes  the 
tobacco  business  in  several  wavs  ;  the  internal  revenue 
tax  on  it  amounts  to  more  than  one  hundred  million 
pesos  a  year. 

PRODUCTION 

Production  in  the  World.  The  foremost  country  in  the 
production  of  tobacco  is  the  United  States,  the  yearly 
crop  there  being  more  than  two  hundred  thousand  tons. 
All  of  Europe  produces  hardly  so  much ;  Russia  and 
Hungary  produce  more  than  the  other  European  coun- 
tries. India  produces  almost  as  much  tobacco  as  the 
United  States.  Turkey  raises  over  thirty  thousand  tons, 
the  Dutch  East  Indies  about  as  much,  and  Japan  nearly 
twenty-five  thousand  tons.  Cuba,  the  Philippines,  and 
Brazil  are  the  other  important  countries. 

Production  in  the  Philippines.  The  export  of  tobacco 
from  the  Philippines  at  different  times  has  been,  in  tons: 


TOBACCO  153 

1854    .    .    .  4205       1884  .    .  .  2047 

1864    .    .    .  2804       1885  .    .  .  6804 

1874    .    .    .  4542       1895  .    .  .  11,382 

1902 91 61 

The  export  of  1874  was  the  most  valuable  of  these, 
being  worth  6,954,000  pesos.  Philippine  tobacco  is  very 
largely  made  into  cigars  and  cigarettes. 

The  foremost  tobacco-raising  province,  both  in  quan- 
tity and  quality,  is  Isabela.  In  the  amount  produced,  it 
is  followed  by  Uoioji,  Cagayan,  Cebu,  Pangasinan,  and 
Ilocos  Norte.  The  raising  of  tobacco  was  prohibited  in 
some  parts  of  the  Islands  by  the  Spanish  government. 
This  furnished  a  local  market,  and  made  it  easier  to 
keep  up  the  grade  of  the  tobacco. 

CONDITIONS   OF   GROWTH 

Heat.  Tobacco  is  like  the  potato  and  maize  in  being 
a  tropical  plant  which  will  grow  in  a  large  part  of  the 
temperate  zones.  This  is  not  because  the  plant  endures 
low  temperatures,  for  frost  is  fatal  to  it,  but  because  it 
can  grow  and  mature  its  fruit  in  the  few  months  of  the 
Northern  summer.  Coffee  endures  a  lower  temperature 
than  any  of  these  plants,  but  can  be  cultivated  only  in 
the  tropics.  Tobacco  grows  as  far  north  as  Minnesota, 
and  even  in  Canada  and  in  Sweden. 

Moisture.  /\  fine  quality  of  tobacco  cannot  be  pro- 
duced where  the  air  is  very  drv.  On  the  other  hand, 
there  must  be  no  very  heavy  rain  while  the  leaves  are 
maturing,  or  while    they  are  being  dried.     Heavy  rain 


154  PHILIPPINE  AGRICULTURE 

sometimes  tears  the  leaves  or  makes  them  rot,  and 
always  gives  them  a  coarse  texture  with  prominent  ribs. 
Too  dry  air  causes  the  pores  of  the  leaves  to  become 
permanently  shut,  and  it  is  then  impossible  to  cure  the 
tobacco  well. 

The  parts  of  the  Philippines  with  a  dry  season  which 
is  moderately  dry,  and  during  which  there  may  be 
showers  but  no  long  rains,  have  an  excellent  climate 
for  tobacco.  The  air  is  rarely  dry  enough  to  be  injuri- 
ous, and  never  is  so  if  the  fields  are  irrigated.  Except 
so  close  to  the  shore  that  the  winds  are  salt,  sea  air  is 
very  favorable  to  tobacco.  In  islands  no  larger  than  the 
Philippines  the  air  in  most  places  carries  the  moisture 
from  the  sea. 

Soil.  There  is  no  other  Philippine  crop  whose  quality 
depends  so  much  on  the  soil  as  tobacco.  Its  soil  must 
never  be  a  very  heavy  clay ;  and,  unless  well  drained,  it 
must  be  rather  light.  The  color  of  the  leaves  depends 
largely  on  the  color  of  the  soil ;  so  that  on  light-colored, 
sandy  soils  light  tobacco  is  raised,  and  dark  tobacco 
grows  on  dark  loam  or  mold  soils. 

Tobacco  leaves  contain  more  ash  than  is  found  in  any 
other  of  our  crops.  Therefore  they  make  poor  the 
ground  where  they  grow  more  -rapidly  than  any  other 
crop  does.  Like  all  plants,  tobacco  must  have  lime  and 
nitrogen,  but  a  soil  very  rich  in  either  of  these  is  bad  for 
it.  Lime  keeps  the  leaves  from  burning  well,  and  much 
nitrogen  makes  the  leaves  too  rich  in  nicotine.  A  good 
sugar  soil  is  the  worst  soil  for  tobacco.     Potash  has  the 


Ton  A  ceo 


'55 


opposite  effect  to  lime,  and  must  therefore  be  abundant 
in  the  best  tobacco  soils.  Iron  causes  the  red  color  of 
"Colorado"  tobacco,  and  it  is  usually  desired  that 
tobacco  soils  contain  much  of  it.  The  soil  in  many 
places  in  the  Philippines  is  very  rich  in  iron. 

CULTURE 

Selection  of  Seed.  Poor  tobacco  can  be  raised  without 
work  anywhere  in  the  Philippines,  but  it  cannot  be  sold. 
There  is  no  other  crop  whose  value  is  so  dependent  on 
the  quality.  The  tobacco  good  enough  to  be  exported 
from  Cuba  and  Sumatra  ranges  in  price  from  15  centavos 
to  7  pesos  a  kilo. 


Fl(i.  107.     A  WL'Il-cultivatctl  tobacco  field  in  tlic  United  States 

The  first  step  toward  raising  fine  tobacco  is  getting 
the  seed  of   fine   tobacco.     No  other  single   thing   has 


156  PHILIPPINE  AGRICULTURE 

done  so  much  to  give  Sumatra  tobacco  its  excellent  rep- 
utation as  the  care  of  the  Dutch  government  that  no 
poor  seed  shall  be  planted.  The  Spanish  government 
did  the  same  work  here  during  the  tobacco  monopoly, 
and  the  deterioration  of  Philippine  tobacco  since  that 
time  has  been  largely  due  to  the  use  of  much  unselected 
seed.  Sumatra  tobacco  came  originally  from  Havana 
seed;  and  many  planters  in  the  United  States,  in  South 
America,  and  even  in  Russia,  now  get  their  seed  from 
Cuba  every  year.  The  highest-priced  tobaccos  are  now 
raised  in  Cuba,  Sumatra,  and  Turkey. 

Seed  Beds.  Tobacco  seed  is  usually  planted  in  seed 
beds.  In  the  Philippines  the  seeds  are  likely  to  be  stolen 
by  ants,  and  where  this  is  the  case,  it  is  best  to  plant  it 
in  boxes  which  ants  cannot  reach.  Some  planters  use  a 
large  quantity  of  seed  in  seed  beds  on  the  ground,  and 
trust  that  the  ants  will  leave  some  of  it ;  but  seed  so  poor 
that  it  can  be  fed  to  ants  ought  not  to  be  planted. 

In  the  seed  bed  the  soil  should  be  very  light  and  ex- 
ceedingly fine.  Ashes  and  horse  manure  are  good  fer- 
tilizers for  the  seed  bed.  The  seeds  must  be  planted 
shallowly,  because  they  are  very  small.  If  they  are  sown 
broadcast,  a  teaspoonful  is  enough  for  20  square  meters 
of  bed.  The  seeds  will  be  more  uniformly  scattered  if 
they  are  thoroughly  mixed  with  5  teaspoonfuls  of  fine 
ashes,  before  they  are  sown. 

A  better  method  than  broadcasting  the  seed  is  plant- 
ing them  with  a  hand  drill.  If  they  are  drilled  in,  they 
should  be  in  rows  10  cm  apart,  and  placed  4  cm  apart 


TOBACCO  157 

in  the  rows.  The  bed  can  be  covered  lightly  with  coarse 
grass  until  the  first  leaves  appear,  and  ought  not  to  need 
watering.     After  heavy  rain,  the  grass  must  be  renewed. 

Transplanting.  Tobacco  should  be  transplanted  when 
it  has  four  or  five  leaves  the  size  of  a  peso.  The  ground 
prepared  for  the  plants  must  have  been  very  thoroughly 
cultivated.  The  easiest  way  is  to  plant  them  on  level, 
flat  ground ;  but  it  is  usually  better  to  raise  each  plant, 
putting  it  in  a  little  hill,  or  to  plant  them  in  rows  along 
low  ridges.  If  the  hills  or  rows  are  too  high,  the  ground 
will  be  likely  to  become  too  dry.  A  proper  distance 
between  plants  is  75  cm  in  each  direction.  They  will 
produce  larger  leaves  if  planted  90  cm  apart,  but  the 
leaves  will  be  coarser  in  texture  and  less  mild. 

If  some  plants  are  injured  in  transplanting,  they  should 
be  replaced  at  once,  even  if  they  are  not  dead,  for  injured 
plants  grow  slowly,  and  the  crop  should  be  matured 
as  rapidly  as  possible.  The  longer  the  crop  is  in  grow- 
ing, the  more  likely  it  is  to  be  destroyed,  by  storms  or 
otherwise.  The  finest  leaves  are  those  which  grow  most 
rapidly.  It  is  well  worth  the  extra  work  to  transplant 
a  block  of  earth  with  each  plant  so  as  to  disturb  the 
roots  as  little  as  possible.  The  plants  must  be  set  into 
the  ground  just  as  deeply  after  transplanting  as  they 
were  in  the  seed  bed. 

Cultivation.  As  soon  after  transplanting  as  the  roots 
are  well  fixed  in  the  new  ground,  which  should  be  in  not 
longer  than  one  week,  the  ground  should  be  well  loos- 
ened with  a  cultivator  or  hoes.     If  this  first  cultivation 


158 


PHILIPPINE  AGRICULTURE 


is  delayed,  it  will  be  bad  for  the  growth  of  the  crop.  For 
four  weeks  after  this,  the  ground  should  be  cultivated 
each  week. 

Removal  of  Tops  and  Leaves.  At  about  the  time  when 
the  first  blossoms  open,  or  a  little  later  than  this,  the  top 
of  the  plant  should  be  removed,  as  well  as  the  lowest 
leaves,  which  are  usually  unsound  or  dirty.  The  number 
of  leaves  that  should  be  left  on  the  plant  depends  on  its 
size  and  strength,  and  on  how  high  a  price  can  be  ob- 
tained for  finer  leaves.  Ten  is  a  good  number  to  leave, 
and  twelve  should  be  the  maximum. 

If  some  of  the  finest  plants  are 
to  furnish  seed,  the  tops  of  these,  of 
course,  must  not  be  removed.  From 
the  time  when  the  tops  are  cut,  the 
branches  begin  to  grow,  and  must  be 
nipped  as  they  appear,  before  they 
bear  any  flowers. 

Harvesting.  Tobacco  should  be 
ready  to  harvest  about  ten  weeks  after 
it  is  transplanted.  Before  it  is  ready 
the  leaves  wilt  and  hang  down,  their 
green  color  fades,  and  they  become 
spotted  with  brown  or  yellow;  they 
lose  their  fresh  texture  and  begin  to 
crumple,  and  suckers  begin  to  grow 
from  the  base  of  the  plant.  The 
plant  should  then  be  cut  off  and 
hung  in  a  well-ventilated  building. 


Fig.  io8.  Tobacco  plant 
after  top  and  lowest 
leaves  are  removed 


TOBACCO  159 

With  the  best  and  the  most  perfect  cultivation,  good 
tobacco  can  be  produced  only  by  proper  curing  of  the 
crop.  But  the  curing  is  too  complicated  a  process,  and 
too  dependent  on  local  conditions  and  also  on  the  way 
in  which  the  tobacco  is  to  be  used,  to  be  described  here. 

Describe  the  insects  attacking  tobacco  where  you  Hve.  How  are  these 
insects  fought? 

How  is  tobacco  cured  in  your  town? 
Where  is  Havana  ? 


CHAPTER   XVII 


COFFEE 


Species.     Almost  all  of  the  coffee  of  the  world  is  the 
product  of  one  species  of  tree,  Coffea  arabica.     A  small 

amount  is  also  produced 
by  Coffea  liberica  and  by 
hybrids  between  the  two 
species. 

Coffea  arabica  is  a  small 
tree,  rarely  more  than  5 
meters  high,  with  oppo- 
site, simple,  entire,  smooth 
and  shining,  evergreen 
leaves,  8  to  12  cm  long. 
The  flowers  are  borne  in 
axillary  clusters. 

Coffea  liberica  is  a 
larger  tree,  with  leaves  20 
to  30  cm  long,  and  larger 
fruit  than  Arabian  coffee. 
It  has  an  inferior  flavor, 
and  has  come  into  cultivation  only  since  the  coffee  rust 
made  the  culture  of  Coffea  arabica  a  risky  business  in 
Ceylon  and  Java. 

160 


Fig.  109.     Coffee  fruit 


COFFEE  l6l 

Coffea  arabica  is  a  native  of  the  mountains  of  eastern 
Africa,  from  Abyssinia  to  Mozambique ;  it  has  also  been 
found  wild  in  Angola.  It  is  called  Arabian  coffee  be- 
cause it  was  first  introduced  to  the  rest  of  the  world  by 
the  Arabs,  and  was  first  cultivated  as  an  article  of  com- 
merce with  Europe,  in  Arabia. 

PRODUCTION 

• 
Total  Exports.  Figures  on  the  amount  of  coffee  pro- 
duced are  not  very  accurate,  because  we  do  not  know  how 
much  is  consumed  in  the  countries  which  produce  it,  but 
only  how  much  they  export  to  Europe  and  the  United 
States.  However,  it  is  easy  to  see  how  rapidly  the 
industry  has  grown.  The  number  of  tons  exported  from 
the  countries  of  the  world  has  been : 


1832    .  . 

.  .   96,000 

1875  .  . 

.  .  513,000 

1844    .   . 

.  .  259,000 

I88I  .  . 

.  .  598,000 

1855   .  . 

.  .  326,000 

I89I  .  . 

.  .  55^'^'00o 

1865    .  . 

.  .  428,000 

1899    .   . 

.  .  802,000 

The  amount  is  now  more  than  a  million  tons.  Of  this 
Brazil  produces  one  half,  and  the  rest  of  America  one 
fourth.  The  Dutch  East  Indies  produce  a  large  part  of 
the  coffee  of  the  Old  World,  followed  by  India,  Madagas- 
car, West  Africa,  Ceylon,  Arabia,  etc.,  and  the  Philippines. 

The  United  States  consumes  about  one  half  of  the 
coffee,  followed  by  Germany,  iMance,  Austria,  Belgium, 
and  England. 


1 62  PHILIPPINE  AGRICULTURE 

Production  in  the  Philippines.  A  few  coffee  plants  seem 
to  have  been  cultivated  in  the  old  Manila  botanical  gar- 
den more  than  a  hundred  years  ago.  In  1837  the  Socie- 
dad  Econdmica  awarded  a  prize  of  1000  pesos  to  a  man 
who  was  supposed  to  have  60,000  bearing  trees.  Jagor, 
a  German  traveler  who  visited  the  Philippines  in  1859 
and  i860,  wrote:  "The  coffee  plant  thrives  won- 
derfully, and  its  berry  has  so  strongly  marked  a  flavor 
that  the  worst  Manila  coffee  commands  as  high  a  price 
as  the  best  Java." 

The  coffee  exported  from  the  Philippines  is  still  of  an 
exceedingly  fine  quality.  The  amounts  exported  have 
been,  in  tons : 

1856 500 

1871 3500 

1874 2150 

1879 4195 

1883 4560 

1894 603 

1895 180  (from  Manila  only) 

Important  Coffee  Districts.  Of  the  Christian  provinces, 
Batangas  has  been  foremost  in  coffee  production;  its 
chief  center  was  Lipa.  Second  in  importance  was  the 
highland  part  of  Cavite,  near  Indang.  At  the  time  of  the 
great  Philippine  export  of  coffee  it  was  almost  entirely 
furnished  by  these  two  provinces.  It  must  be  twenty-five 
or  thirty  years  since  coffee  was  introduced  into  northern 
Luzon.      The  greatest  production   of  tliis  district  was 


COFFEE  163 

about     1890,    but    the    yield     is     now    important    and 
growing. 

It  is  not  known  when  coffee  was  introduced  into  the 
Moro  country,  but  it  was  surely  long  ago.  The  Lanao 
district  is  probably  the  chief  source  of  Moro  coffee.  Min- 
danao now  exports  more  coffee  than  Luzon.  In  all  parts 
of  the  Philippines  some  coffee  is  raised  for  local  use,  but 
none  is  exported  except  from  the  parts  already  named. 
Liberian  coffee  has  been  cultivated  for  several  years  near 
San  Jose,  Batangas,  but  as  yet  without  much  profit. 

CONDITIONS   OF   GROWTH 

Temperature.  Coffee  is  a  tropical  plant ;  but  since  it  is 
likewise  a  mountain  plant,  it  does  not  need  a  high  tem- 
perature, and  does  not  thrive  where  it  is  very  hot.  The 
coffee  plant  is  very  healthy,  although  it  does  not  grow 
very  rapidly,  where  the  temperature  is  uniform  and  aver- 
ages lower  than  20°  throughout  the  year.  It  even  endures 
light  frosts.  Liberian  coffee  requires  greater  heat.  It 
would  perhaps  thrive  at  sea  level  in  the  Philippines,  and 
in  })laccs  where  Arabian  coffee  grows,  Liberian  should 
not  be  shaded. 

Moisture.  Coffee  is  naturally  a  forest  plant,  and  requires 
a  constantly  moist  air.  This  can  be  provided  by  shading 
the  plants,  where  the  climate  is  too  dry  or  slightly  too 
warm  for  them  to  endure  the  sunshine. 

We  know  that  the  moistness  of  the  climate  increases 
with  the  altitude.  The  lowest  good  coffee  country  in  the 
Philippines  is  the  highlands  of  Batangas  and  Cavite,  at 


1 64  PHILIPPINE  AGRICULTURE 

an  altitude  of  about  400  meters.  The  Moro  coffee  is 
raised  mostly  at  above  700  meters.  In  northern  Luzon, 
the  finest  coffee  is  raised  in  Balili,  Kabayan,  Daklan,  and 
Sagada  at  altitudes  above  1500  meters.  In  these  places 
it  is  so  cool  and  moist  that  coffee  requires  no  shade. 
Moreover,  the  low  temperature  is  bad  for  the  rust ;  so 
that  it  is  possible  to  raise  a  crop  of  good  coffee  in  these 
places  as  often  as  once  in  two  years,  even  though  the  rust 
is  not  fought  in  any  way  whatever. 

Coffee  likes  also  still  air ;  because  wind,  like  heat  and 
dryness,  hastens  the  transpiration.  The  same  trees 
which  furnish  shade  break  the  wind.  The  trees  used  to 
shade  coffee  are  the  same  ones  used  for  abaca,  usually 
dapdap  and  madrecacao. 

Soil.  Coffee  demands  a  fairly  rich,  deep  soil,  for  its 
taproot  descends  2  or  3  meters.  Volcanic  soil,  whether 
formed  from  lava,  or  from  showers  of  ashes,  is  excellent 
for  coffee.  After  an  eruption  of  Taal  which  covered  the 
plantations  of  Cavite  with  ashes,  the  coffee  bore  such 
crops  as  never  before.  And  twice  within  recent  years 
there  have  been  showers  of  volcanic  ashes  in  Guatemala 
which  seemed  to  destroy  the  near-by  plantations ;  but 
each  eruption  was  followed  by  an  unusually  heavy  coffee 
crop. 

CULTURE 

The  Seed.  Coffee  is  always  reproduced  by  seed.  The 
seed  to  be  planted  should  always  be  picked  from  the 
best  trees.  It  is  very  unwise  to  propagate  coffee  by 
transplanting  the  young  trees  found  in  the  orchard,  for 


COFFEE 


16$ 


these  usually  grow  from  seed  which  fell  too  early,  and 
so  were  lost  in  the  picking.  The  trees  which  grow  from 
these  seed  will  probably  also  shed  many  seed  as  they 
ripen,  and  this  is  very  undesirable. 

The  seed  can  be  planted  in  bamboo  tubes,  or  in  seed 
beds.     If  seed  beds  are  used,  they  should  be  of  rich  soil, 


• 



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p 

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w 

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fe. 

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m 

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L 

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■UB^?.,mMS^B( 

— -1^-1 — II 

Fli;.  no.     Coffee  plantation  in  Brazil 

made  very  fine  and  soft  to  a  depth  of  at  least  25  cm. 
The  seed  may  be  planted  2  cm  deep,  and  15  cm  apart  in 
each  direction.  The  seed  bed  must  be  kept  moist,  and 
this  is  usually  impossible  unless  it  is  kept  shaded.  Coffee 
seed  is  very  slow  to  germinate,  sometimes  taking  more 
than  two  months.  During  this  time  and  until  the  younsj 
trees  are  transplanted,  the  beds  must  be  kept  free  of 
weeds. 


1 66      •  PHILIPPINE  AGRICULTURE 

Transplanting.  The  trees  are  transplanted  early  in  the 
rainy  season,  when  they  should  be  six  months  or  more 
old.  The  taproot  must  not  be  broken  or  cut,  for  this  is 
likely  to  injure  the  tree  permanently.     The  trees  might 


Fig.  III.     Drying  coffee  in  Benguet 

be  left  another  year  in  the  seed  beds,  if  planted  25  cm 
apart ;  but  it  is  more  difficult  to  transplant  these  larger 
trees  without  injury.  No  trees  which  are  weak  or  un- 
sound in  any  respect  should  be  transplanted. 

Where  trees  are  to  be  planted,  it  is  a  good  practice  to 
dig  a  hole  40  cm  wide  and  deep,  and  to  fill  it  around 
and  under  the  tree  with  rich  earth.  Two  meters  in  each 
direction  is  a  good  distance  between  trees.  In  Ceylon 
they  are  planted  closer  together  than  this,  and  kept 
trimmed  very  short;  while  in  Brazil  they  are  3  or  4 
meters  apart,  and  not  trimmed  at  all. 


COFFEE  167 

Care  of  the  Trees.  The  Philippine  coffee  is  usually 
rather  small ;  and  it  is  advisable  not  to  let  it  grow  more 
than  2  meters  in  height.  At  that  height  it  is  easy  to 
pick  the  fruit,  and  the  trees  can  be  sprayed  to  guard 
against  the  coffee  rust,  without  a  great  waste  of  the  Bor- 
deaux mixture.  As  has  already  been  explained  in  the 
chapter  on  plant  diseases,  a  coffee  plantation  must  be 
kept  clean  of  dead  leaves  and  branches,  as  a  protection 
against  rust  and  insects. 

Coffee  is  likely  to  bear  a  good  crop  when  four  years 
old,  and  to  bear  every  year  for  more  than  a  decade.  The 
methods  of  handling  the  crop  are  very  different  in  differ- 
ent countries. 


CHAPTER   XVIII 


CACAO 


The  Cacao  Plant.     Cacao  is  the  name  of  a  plant,  Theo- 

broma  Cacao,  and  of 
some  of  the  products 
obtained  from  its  seed. 
Chocolate,  which  also 
is  yielded  by  these 
seed,  contains  more 
oil  than  does  cacao. 
The  tree  is  a  native  of 
tropical  America.  It 
must  have  been  in  cul- 
tivation fora  long  time 
before  the  Spanish  dis- 
covered America,  for 
it  was  then  found  all 
the  way  from  Mexico 
to  southern  Brazil.  In 
the  same  region  are 
more  than  twenty 
„   ,,^  .     •   .u  other  trees  in  the  same 

Fig.  112.     Healthy  young  cacao  tree  m  the 

Philippines  gcuus ;     the    sccd    of 

some  of  these  is  sometimes  collected  and   mixed   with 
real  cacao. 


i68 


CACAO  169 

Production.  Some  cacao  is  now  raised  in  all  tropical 
countries.  The  foremost  country  in  the  amount  produced 
is  Ecuador,  but  Venezuela  is  foremost  in  quality.  The 
Philippines  and  Ceylon  have  been  the  chief  sources  of 
cacao  in  the  Old  World.  The  mountainous  little  island 
of  Maripipi  produced  in  Spanish  times  the  finest  cacao  in 
the  world, —  so  fine  that  it  sold  for  a  peso  a  liter,  or  almost 
twice  the  best  market  price  of  Venezuela  cacao. 

Uses.  The  chief  use  of  cacao  is  in  making  drinks,  cocoa 
or  cacao,  and  chocolate;  but  a  great  deal  is  also  used  in 
candy  and  pastry,  and  as  a  solid  food.  Mountaineers 
and  explorers  carry  sweet  chocolate,  because  they  believe 
that  it  is  the  most  convenient  and  valuable  of  all  foods,  in 
proportion  to  its  weight  and  bulk. 

Description.  Cacao  is  a  small  tree,  usually  reaching  a 
height  of  about  7  meters  and  a  diameter  of  about  10  cm. 
The  flowers  are  clustered  on  dwarfed  branches,  on  the 
trunk  and  leafless  limbs.  As  a  rule,  only  about  one 
tenth  of  the  flowers  produce  fruit.  The  average  number 
of  fruit  on  a  tree  is  twenty  or  thirty,  though  some  trees 
produce  many  more. 

Describe  a  leaf  of  cacao.     How  does  it  differ  from  that  of  coffee? 
Describe  the  flower,  and  ilUistrate  all  parts. 

The  fruit  is  10  to  15  cm  long,  and  half  as  thick,  with 
ten  lengthwise  furrows.  In  the  Philijjpines  it  is  usually 
red  before  it  is  ripe,  and  afterwards  becomes  brown.  It 
usually  contains  as  many  as  forty  reddish  or  brownish 
seeds,  each  of  which  is  composed  almost  entirely  of  the 
two  fleshy  cotyledons. 


I70  PHIUPPINE  AGRICULTURE 

CONDITIONS   OY   GROWTH 

Climate.  Cacao  demands  more  warmth  and  more  mois- 
ture than  does  coffee.  It  will  not  produce  large  crops 
where  the  annual  rainfall  is  much  less  than  2  meters, 
nor  where  there  is  a  severe  dry  season.  However,  if  the 
rain  is  too  little,  it  can  be  made  up  in  part  by  irrigation, 
with  equally  good  results.  The  average  yearly  tempera- 
ture must  be  at  least  22°,  and  may  well  be  higher.  Strong 
winds  do  great  damage,  both  by  increasing  the  transpira- 
tion, and  by  shaking  off  the  fruit. 

Soil.  Since  this  tree  has  a  taproot,  it  will  not  be  very 
thrifty  in  soil  less  than  i  meter  deep.  It  will  endure 
standing  water  in  or  over  the  ground  longer  than  most 
cultivated  crops;  but,  like  other  crops,  it  is  more  healthy 
and  productive  on  well-drained  soil.  It  is  sometimes 
possible  to  kill  its  insect  enemies  by  drowning  them. 

A  good  soil  for  cacao  must  be  reasonably  rich  in  lime; 
one  half  of  i  per  cent  is  necessary  for  a  fair  crop,  and  i  \ 
per  cent  is  better.  Much  iron  in  the  soil  is  an  advantage, 
because  it  darkens  the  seed,  and  dark  seed  brings  a  better 
price.  Cacao  exhausts  the  phosphorus  of  the  soil  rather 
rapidlv. 

CULTURE 

Planting.  Cacao  is  reproduced  by  seed.  These  can 
be  planted  where  the  trees  are  wanted,  or  in  seed  beds. 
The  disadvantage  of  using  seed  beds  is  that  the  plants 
grow  rapidly,  and  do  not  stand  transplanting  well.  In- 
jury to  the  roots  can  be  avoided  by  planting  the  seed 
in  bamboo  joints,  and  merely  splitting  these  when  the 


CACAO  171 

plants  are  large  enough  to  be  put  in  their  permanent 
places.  The  disadvantages  of  planting  the  seed  where 
the  trees  are  wanted  are  that  they  must  be  cultivated  and 
shaded  while  still  very  small,  and  that  insects  and  other 
animals  are  likely  to  eat  the  seed.  Insects  can  be  kept 
away  by  putting  ashes  around  the  seed. 

The  seeds  are  planted  2  or  3  cm  deep,  and  should 
germinate  within  two  weeks.  If  seed  beds  are  used,  the 
plants  should  be  15  cm  apart,  in  rows  25  cm  apart.  It 
is  probably  never  advisable  to  have  the  trees  less  than 
3.5  meters  apart,  though  they  are  said  to  have  been 
much  closer  together  in  Maripipi.  The  first  crop  is  ob- 
tained when  they  are  four  or  five  years  old. 

Shade.  Cacao  must  always  be  shaded.  The  same 
kinds  of  trees  are  used  to  shade  cacao  as  to  shade 
coffee.  Since  cacao  grows  at  lesser  altitudes,  and  en- 
dures a  denser  shade  than  coffee,  it  is  more  often  prac- 
ticable to  use  shade  trees  which  themselves  yield  useful 
products.  Bananas  arc  used  to  shade  young  cacao,  and 
ilangilang  and  some  of  the  large  fruit  trees  can  be  used 
when  the  trees  arc  mature.  Young  plants  of  some  large 
tree  are  planted  in  the  place  of  about  one  twentieth  of 
the  cacao  trees. 

Cultivation.  Whether  or  not  the  ground  is  weedy, 
cacao  will  much  more  than  pay,  by  the  greater  yield, 
for  a  cultivation  of  the  soil  twice  a  year.  The  trees 
should  also  be  pruned  once  a  year,  and  kept  from  be- 
coming too  high.  The  fruit  slioukl  always  be  cut,  not 
broken  off,  to  save  the  place  for  future  flowers. 


172 


PHILIPPINE  AGRICULTURE 


Enemies.  Cacao  has  many  enemies,  both  insects  and 
fungi.  In  the  Philippines,  a  wood-boring  insect,  and 
another  which  destroys  the  fruit,  have  been  very  destruc- 
tive, and  during  the  last 
decade  have  made  it  im- 
possible to  raise  cacao 
with  profit  in  many 
places. 

Crop.  While  a  good 
crop  should  be  ob- 
tained when  the  trees 
are  five  years  old,  it  in- 
creases until  the  trees 
are  twelve  years  old. 
For  many  years,  then, 
the  yield  should  be  at 
least  500  kilos  a  year 
from  each  hektar.  In 
Cebu,  the  foremost  prov- 
ince in  the  Philippines 
in  the  production  of 
cacao,  the  Census  of  1903  showed  the  average  yield  to 
be  390  kilos.  A  great  advantage  in  the  culture  of  cacao 
is  the  small  amount  of  labor  required.  On  this  account 
it  is  about  as  profitable  a  crop  as  coffee,  although  the 
coffee  crop  from  an  equal  area  of  ground  is  much  more 
valuable. 


Fig.  113.    Cacao  tree  in  fruit  in  Venezuela 


CHAPTER   XIX 

FRUITS 

The  word  "  fruit "  has  two  uses.  Botanically  speaking, 
any  structure  which  contains  seed  is  a  fruit.  But  in 
more  common  use  the  word  is  applied  only  to  those 
which  are  fleshy  and  edible.  This  chapter  is  about 
fruits  in   this  narrower,  more  common,  sense. 

The  Philippines  have  more  fruits  than  have  most 
countries,  and  some  of  them  are  of  excellent  quality.  But 
others  are  not  so  good  as  in  countries  where  they  receive 
better  care  or  where  better  varieties  are  cultivated. 

BANANAS 

History.  By  far  the  most  important  Philippine  fruit  is 
the  banana.  Almost  or  quite  all  of  the  Philippine  culti- 
vated bananas  are  forms  produced  in  cultivation  from  a 
single  species,  Miisa  sapicutum,  which  is  not  positively 
known  except  in  cultivation.  There  are  many  wild 
species  of  Musa  in  this  part  of  the  world,  and  some  of 
these  may  have  given  rise  to  cultivated  forms.  The 
banana  is  a  native  of  Malaya  or  southeastern  Asia,  but 
history  does  not  tell  when  it  was  introduced  into  all 
other  tropical  countries. 

Description.  In  its  stem,  flowers,  and  fruit,  the  banana 
is  practically  like  the  abaca,  except  that  in  all  the  finer 

•73 


174 


PHILIPPINE  AGRICULTURE 


varieties  of  banana  the  seeds  are  reduced  to  mere  specks. 
In  some  varieties,  however,  as  in  the  one  called  latandan 
in  Manila,  a  few  large  seeds  are  sometimes  found. 

■  Uses.     The  banana  has  various 

uses.  The  broad  leaves  are  used 
for  wrapping  in  place  of  paper; 
they  are  also  used  as  dishes.  The 
juice  is  used  as  an  astringent  and 
to  fix  dyes.  After  the  fertile 
flowers  have  blossomed,  the  stam- 
inate  flowers  at  the  end  of  the 
cluster,  with  their  bracts  and 
fleshy  stem,  are  cut  off  and 
cooked,  and  eaten  as  a  fresh  vege- 
table or  as  a  salad. 

Varieties.  There  are  many  va- 
rieties of  bananas.  A.  M.  Ellis, 
teacher  in  Leyte,  has  found  more 
than  sixty  different  ones  in  that 
island  alone.  They  differ  in  the 
size  and  appearance  of  the  plants, 
in  the  time  which  they  take  to  ma- 
ture, and  in  the  size,  shape,  color, 
texture,  flavor,  and  uses  of  fruit. 

They  also  differ  in  the  conditions  under  which  they  will 

thrive.     Many  of  them  are  very  local,  and  others  have 

different  names  in  different  places. 

The  favorite  varieties  for  eating  raw  are  the  long  green 

ones,  spotted  when  ripe,  called  bongulan  in  Manila,  and 


Fig.  114.    Bunch  of  latandan 
bananas 


FRUITS 


175 


the  lakatan,  which  is  yellow.  The  morada  is  a  very  rich 
variety,  brownish  red  in  color,  probably  introduced  from 
tropical  America.  In  general,  the  finest  varieties  require 
the  longest  time  before  they  mature.  It  is  usual  in  Eng- 
lish to  call  the  varieties  which  are  eaten  raw,  bananas ; 
while  those  which  must  be  cooked  are  called  plantains. 
Climate     and 

Soil.     The    ba-  ^^^IK.       C^ 

nana  is  a  tropical  .^^^^^^^S^  V^v' , 

plant,  and  most 
varieties  are  killed 
by  frost.  It  en- 
dures shade,  but 
bears  more  fruit 
in  the  sunshine, 
in  places  where 
shade  is  not 
needed.  Like  abaca,  it  cannot  endure  wind,  nor  dry  air, 
and  must  be  sheltered  and  shaded  if  exposed  to  them. 
The  soil,  also,  must  be  moist ;  the  more  water  it  contains 
the  better,  if  it  also  contains  air.  Heavy  soil  is  better 
than  light.  Rich  soil  is  more  necessary  for  the  banana 
than  for  the  abaca.  Unless  it  is  very  rich,  it  should  be 
fertilized  freely. 

Planting  and  Cultivation.  Bananas  are  propagated  by 
transplanting  the  suckers  which  grow  ujd  around  old 
plants.  If  they  bear  any  unrolled  leaves,  these  leaves 
should  be  cut  off.  The  ground  should  be  fine  and  rich 
where  bananas  are  to  be  planted.      Half  a  kilo  of  ashes 


Fk;.  115.     The  morada  banana 


1/6  PHILIPPINE  AGRICULTURE 

around  each  plant  is  an  excellent  fertilizer  ;  but  the  ashes 
must  be  mixed  well  with  the  soil,  not  put  against  the 
plant.  For  most  varieties;  3  meters  apart  in  each  direc- 
tion is  a  good  distance  in  planting. 

The  surface  of  the  ground  must  always  be  kept  loose, 
and  free  of  weeds  until  the  shade  of  the  bananas  can 
keep  them  down.  The  ground  cannot  be  cultivated 
deeply  without  injuring  the  roots.  If  all  the  suckers 
which  spring  from  the  base  of  a  plant  are  allowed  to  live, 
the  plant  will  produce  little  and  poor  fruit,  or  none  at  all. 
As  a  general  rule  only  one  sucker  at  a  time  should  be 
allowed  to  grow,  but  there  may  be  two  if  the  soil  is 
rich  and  the  plants  are  far  enough  apart. 

Time  of  Ripening.  The  time  between  planting  and 
maturity  varies  from  nine  months  to  three  years,  depend- 
ing on  the  variety  of  banana  and  on  the  conditions  of 
growth. 

When  fully  ripe,  the  banana  is  rich  in  sugar.  Just 
before  ripeness,  this  substance  is  mostly  in  the  form  of 
starch,  and  a  very  nourishing  meal  can  be  made  by  dry- 
ing bananas  at  this  time  and  crushing  them.  The  cook- 
ing bananas  are  commonly  used  before  most  of  the  starch 
turns  to  sugar. 

PAPAYA 

Description  and  Uses.  This  plant,  whose  name  is 
Carica  papaya,  is  another  strictly  tropical,  quick-growing 
plant,  whose  stem  is  hardly  woody  enough  to  justify  call- 
ing it  a  tree. 


FRUITS 


177 


Besides  the  ripe  fruit,  other  parts  of  the  plant  are 
supposed  to  be  useful  in  various  ways.  If  the  unripe 
fruit  is  fed  to  ducks  and  geese,  it  is  expected  to  cause  an 
abundance  of  eggs.  It  is  given  to  human  beings  as  a 
vermifuge.  Soap  is  sometimes 
made  from  the  leaves. 

The  milky  juice  contains  a 
substance  like  that  in  the  juice 
of  the  stomach,  which  can  digest 
the  fibers  in  meat,  and  so  make 
the  meat  tender  and  easily  di- 
gestible. There  are  many  va- 
rieties of  this  nourishing  fruit. 

Papaya  is  always  reproduced 
by  seed,  and  may  mature  in  as 
short  a  time  as  nine  months. 
The  fruit  should  be  produced 
throughout  the  year.  ^.-,„  „g    j,,j,^,y,,  ,.^, ,,,  f,.,„ 


CITRUS    FRUITS 

History.  Citrus  is  a  genus  of  fruit  trees,  including 
all  the  kinds  of  oranges,  lemons,  limes  (cabuyao),  and 
pomelos,  or  lukban.  As  articles  of  commerce,  these  are 
the  most  important  of  tropical  fruits;  but  the  lands  fore- 
most in  their  production,  Italy  and  California,  arc  not 
really  tropical.  A  number  of  species  of  citrus  are  culti- 
vated;  but  they  have  been  so  mixed  in  cultivation,  and 
so  many  new  forms  have  been  produced,  that  it  is  no 
longer  possible  to   state  what,  or  how  many,  the   wild 


178  PHILIPPINE  AGRICULTURE 

ancestors  were.     All  are  natives  of  southeastern  Asia  and 
Malaya. 

In  the  Philippines.  The  varieties  cultivated  in  the 
Philippines  are  mostly  not  very  good,  but  the  climate  is 
excellent  for  them,  and  the  best  varieties  can  be  easily 
introduced.  Not  every  variety  brought  in  can  be  ex- 
pected to  produce  fine  fruit  here,  but  some  of  them  are 


Fig.  117.     Pomelo 

sure  to  do  so.  The  chief  orange  district  in  the  Philip- 
pines is  about  Tanawan,  in  Batangas. 

Varieties.  Flavor  and  juiciness  are  the  most  impor- 
tant qualities  in  an  orange ;  after  these  come  a  loose 
skin  and  absence  of  seed.  The  finest  oranges  are  the 
mandarin,  the  navel,  and  the  blood.  Each  of  these  has 
many  varieties.  The  mandarin  is  a  native  of  China; 
the  navel  probably  originated  in  Brazil ;  and  the  finest 
blood  orange,  in  Malta. 

Some  of  the  Philippine  oranges  have  a  very  fine  flavor, 
but  they  are  tight-skinned,  seedy,  and  fibrous.  One  of 
the   best  pomelos  is  the   Chinese,  the  fruit  of  which  is 


FRUITS 


179 


imported    into    Manila.     A    very    fine    and    large   lime 
grows  in  the  Philippine  forests. 

Climate.  The  different  varieties  of  citrus  fruits  make 
different  demands  on  the  climate.  Some  endure  heavy 
frost,  while  others  will  not  thrive  where  the  temperature 
ever  approaches  the  freez- 
ing point.  There  is  no 
place  in  the  Philippines, 
at  whatever  altitude, 
where     some      of     these 

1  11  i.  i.1      •  l''<;-  118.     Orange 

should  not  thrive. 

Soil.  To  permit  the  best  growth,  the  soil  must  be 
fairly  light,  and  without  standing  water  within  150  cm  of 
the  surface  ;  but  most  of  the  roots  do  not  run  deeply. 
The  soil  should  be  rich  in  potassium,  and  especially  so 
in  lime.  No  other  tropical  fruit  endures  dry  air  so  well 
as  these  do,  if  they  are  irrigated. 


o 


Fl(j.  119.     Lemons 

Propagation  and  Cultivation.  The  finer  citrus  fruits 
are  reproduced  by  grafting.  The  seed  of  some  strong  and 
hardy  kind  is  ])lanted,  and  on  the  stem  of  the  seedling  a 
small  branch  of  the  desired  variety  is  grafted.  Cirafting 
not  only  makes  certain  the  kind  of  fruit  that  will  be  pro- 
duced, but  also  gives  a  plant  that  produces  two  or  more 


i8o 


PHILIPPINE  AGRICULTURE 


years  sooner  than  if  it  had  been  grown  directly  from  the 
seed. 

In  raising  oranges,  it  is  important  to  keep  the  ground 
well  cultivated  and  free  from  weeds.  Orange  trees 
should  be  planted  about  4  meters  apart,  and  kept  small 
enough  not  to  be  crowded. 

MANGO 

History.  The  choicest  fruit  in  general  cultivation  in 
the  Philippines  is  the  mdiXigo,- Mangi/era  indica.  This 
tree  is  a  native  of  India,  where  its  cultivation  is  very 
ancient.     It  also  spread  long  ago  over   Malaya.     It   is 

cultivated  in  all  tropi- 
cal countries.  There 
are  more  than  five 
hundred  varieties  in 
all  India,  and  more 
than  two  hundred 
have  been  cultivated 
in  a  single  grove. 
India  and  the  Philip- 
pines are  homes  of  the 
finest  mangos. 
Climate.  The  man- 
go is  a  distinctively  tropical  fruit,  and  thrives  best 
where  the  temperature  is  uniformly  high.  Strong  wind 
is  very  injurious  to  it.  It  endures  dry  seasons  well,  but 
should  be  irrigated,  if  the  ground  is  dry  during  flowering 
time  or  the  following  three  months.     Rain  at  flowering 


Fig.  120.     Mango  tree  in  the  Philippines 


FRUITS 


I8l 


time  is  likely  to  do  great  damage  by  preventing  pollina- 
tion. Good  mango  soil  is  rich,  deep,  and  well  drained. 
Bones  are  a  good  fertilizer. 

Seed.  The  mango  is  reproduced  by  seed  or  by  graft- 
ing. The  seed  is  short-lived;  but  it  has  been  found  in 
Hawaii  that  almost  half  of  the  seed  will  germinate,  if  kept 
a  month  before  planting.  It  was  also  found  there  that 
if  the  hard  shell  is  removed  from  the  seed,  the  average 
time  required  for  germination  is  i8  days, 
but  that  the  average  time  with  the  shell 
left  on  is  40  days.  The  seeds  should  be 
placed  on  their  sides. 

Grafting.  The  easiest  way  of  grafting 
mangos  is  that  called  inarching.  A 
vigorous  seedling  about  six  months  old, 
growing  in  a  pot  or  large  joint  of  bam- 
boo, is  put  where  its  stem  can  be 
placed  beside  a  small  branch-stem  of  the 
variety  desired.  The  two  stems  must  be  ^"=- "'•  '"^"'^^'''"^ 
of  the  same  size.  Where  they  are  in  contact,  a  piece  of 
the  surface  about  10  cm  long  is  then  cut  from  each  with 
a  shaq3  knife,  leaving  a  flat,  smooth  surface  cut  well  into 
the  wood.  The  two  cut  surfaces  are  then  fastened  to- 
gether firmly,  but  without  much  pressure;  the  bark  of  one 
stem  must  fit  the  bark  of  the  other. 

The  air  is  then  kept  away  from  the  edges  of  the  cut 
surfaces  by  means  of  grafting  wax.  A  good  liquid  wax 
is  made  by  melting  together  160  grams  of  white  resin  and 
10  grams  of  beef  tallow,  and  slowly  adding  80  grams  of 


1 82  PHILIPPINE  AGRICULTURE 

alcohol.  The  alcohol  must  not  be  added  while  the  mixture 
is  over  the  fire. 

After  the  two  stems  become  well  grown  together,  the 
branch  is  cut  below  the  graft,  and  the  top  of  the  seedling 
is  removed,  leaving  the  end  of  the  branch  growing  on  the 
root  of  the  seedling.  It  should  then  be  set  out  in  its 
permanent  place  as  soon  as  possible.  Plants  can  be 
transplanted  whenever  they  are  without  young  leaves. 
Ten  meters  between  the  trees  is  a  good  distance. 

Cultivation.  Like  other  plants,  the  mango  will  pay  for 
cultivation  of  the  ground  by  maturing  sooner,  and  bear- 
ing larger  crops.  Smoking  the  trees  is  believed  in  the 
Philippines  to  stimulate  the  production  of  fruit;  and  the 
trees  are  hacked  for  the  same  purpose.  This  may  in- 
crease the  next  crop  of  fruit,  but  only  at  the  expense  of 
the  roots. 

The  price  of  the  fruit  depends  upon  the  season.  Ex- 
periments in  Manila  have  shown  that  at  a  temperature 
of  14°  mangos  not  quite  ripe  will  keep  well  for  at  least 
a  month.  This  has  also  been  found  in  Hawaii  to  be 
true  at  about  3°. 

MINOR   FRUITS 

There  are  in  the  Philippines  many  fruits  which  are 
less  important  or  less  widely  known  than  those  which 
have  been  described.  Of  these  there  are  two,  the  durian 
and  the  mangosteen,  each  of  which  is  sometimes  called 
the  most  delicious  of  all  fruits. 

Mangosteen.  The  mangosteen  is  a  native  of  the 
Moluccas,  but    has  long   been  in  cultivation  as   far   as 


FRUITS  183 

Bengal.  In  the  Philippines  it  is  found  at  Dapitan,  and 
even  in  Negros,  but  is  not  common  north  of  Jolo.  The 
fruit  is  brought  to  Manila  from  Singapore. 

The  mangosteen  is 
a  small  tree  with  dark 
red  flowers  and  dark 
reddish  brown,  spotted 
fruit.  The  husk  of  the 
fruit  is  red  where 
broken.     Inside    it    is 

the  white    or  rosy  pulp.  p,^    ^^^     Mangosteen 

Fine  mangosteens  are 

almost  seedless.  In  growing  this  fruit,  care  must  be 
taken  to  secure  rapid  growth  for  some  time  after  ger- 
mination. 

Santol  is  a  very  similar  Philippine  fruit,  in  the  same 
family ;  but  it  has  not  the  mangosteen's  fine  flavor. 

Durian.  The  durian  is 
a  huge  fruit,  15  to  20  cm 
in  diameter,  with  a  hard 
shell  covered  with  jjyrami- 
dal  spines.  It  is  a  native 
Fir,.  123.  Atis  of  Malaya,  now  cultivated 

as  far  as  14°  north  in  Siam, 
but  unknown  in  the  Philippines  north  of  Mindanao. 
The  trees  are  very  large,  and  are  said  to  bear  in  other 
places  as  many  as  two  hundred  fruits;  but  in  Mindanao 
they  usually  bear  very  few.  Inside  the  hard  shell  is  a 
butter-like,  creamy  pulp,  delicious    in   taste   and   vile  in 


1 84  PHILIPPINE  AGRICULTURE 

odor.     When    the    season    opens,    single   fruits   sell   in 
Singapore  for  two  pesos. 

Mabolo.  The  mabolo,  Diospyros  discolor^  is  a  com- 
mon Philippine  fruit  with  good  flavor,  but  unpleasant 
odor.      Besides   this    species   and    many   others  in  the 

Philippines,    the     genus 
^  '^  Diospyros    contains    the 


persimmons,  which  are 
a  staple  fruit  of  Japan. 
The  heartwood  of  mabolo 
sometimes  turns  perfectly 

FIG.  124.    Chlco  ^i^^j^^     ^^^     jg     g^j^      ^g 

ebony.  More  commonly,  it  is  not  all  quite  black ;  then 
it  is  called  camagon.  Other  species  of  Diospyros  also 
furnish  ebony,  and  probably  camagon  as  well. 


Fig.  125.    Guavas 

Lansones.  Next  to  the  mango,  the  most  highly  prized 
fruit  on  the  Manila  market  is  the  lanson.  This  is  a 
small  fruit,  two  or  three  centimeters  in  diameter,  but 
borne  in  large  bunches.  It  has  a  thin  skin,  in  which  is 
a  bitter,  milky  juice.     Inside  this  the  fruit  has  five  divi- 


FRUITS 


185 


sions,  each  of  which,  in  the  wild  lanson,  usually  contains 
a  seed.  As  a  result  of  cultivation  and  selection,  and 
propagation  by  cuttings,  four  of  these  seeds,  and  some- 
times  all    five,  have   become  very  small   and    tasteless. 


Fig.  126.     Breadfruit 


The  remaining  seed  is  large  and  bitter,  and  not  edible. 
Young  trees  begin  to  produce  when  about  five  years 
old,  and  when  mature  are  six  meters  or  more  in  height. 

In  Java  the  seed  of  lansones  are  used  as  a  vermifuge, 
and  the  fresh  skin  of  the  fruit  is  rubbed  on  the  body 
after  bathing. 

The  Genus  Anona.  The  genus  Aiiojia  includes  several 
Philippine  fruits,  —  the  atis,  or  sweet  sop,  anonas,  and  sour 
sop,  or  guanabano.  All  of  these  are  natives  of  America 
and  grow  only  in  the  tropics.     The  sweet  sop  has  several 


1 86 


PHILIPPINE  AGRICULTURE 


ovaries  in  each  flower,  ajid  these  remain  separable  in 
fruit.  Its  seed,  ground  fine,  serves  as  an  insecticide, 
which  is  used,  for  instance,  to  kill  the  insects  on  dogs. 
The  custard  apple,  or  cherimoya,  is  usually  called  the 
finest  of  the  fruits  in  this  genus ;  it  has  not  been  intro- 
duced into  the  Philippines.  The  ilangilang  is  a  tree  in 
this  family. 

Other  Fruits.  Among  the  numerous  other  Philippine 
fruits  are  the  chico;  the  chico  mamey,  a  fine  fruit  which 
seems  now  to  be  cultivated  only  at  Alfonso  in  Cavite ; 
antipolo,  or  camansi,  the  breadfruit;  nangka,  the  jack- 
fruit;   bilimbi;  iba;  casoy;  and  guava. 


GLOSSARY 


Anther.    See  Flower. 

Bacteria.  The  smallest,  and  probably  the 
most  primitive,  living  things.  They  are 
without  chlorophyll,  and  most  of  them 
must  obtain  their  food  as  animals  do, 
from  animals  and  plants.  There  are 
many  kinds,  of  which  a  few  cause  dis- 
ease. Consumption  and  cholera  are 
human  diseases  caused  by  bacteria. 

Bract.  A  specialized  leaf,  in  or  just  below 
an  inflorescence.  Bracts  are  usually 
simple  and  smaller  than  other  leaves, 
or  they  are  not  green. 

Calcium.  An  element  widespread  in  the 
soil,  making  up  a  large  part  of  lime- 
stone, marble,  pearls,  gypsum,  and 
chalk.  It  is  an  especially  valuable  fer- 
tilizer for  crops  not  raised  for  the  seed 
or  fruit,  and  for  legumes. 

Capsule.  A  dry  fruit,  which  opens  when 
ripe  and  lets  the  seed  escape.  It  is 
composed  of  two  or  more  carpels.  Kx- 
amples :  tobacco,  okra,  cotton. 

Carbon.  An  element  found  free  in  two 
forms,  as  diamond  and  as  graphite  (the 
"lead"  of  lead  pencils).  In  combina- 
tion it  is  found  in  every  part  of  every 
living  thing. 

Carbon  dioxid.  A  gas,  formed  by  the 
union  t)f  carbon  an<l  oxygen.  All  liv- 
ing  things  fi)rm    carl)i>n    dioxid  at    all 


times;  but  green  plants  destroy  it  in 
sunlight.  It  is  given  off  by  animals 
when  they  breathe. 

Carpel.    See  Flower. 

Cell.  The  unit  of  structure  of  living 
things.  Some  living  things,  as  bac- 
teria, are  single  cells,  but  most  are 
made  up  of  many  cells.  The  parts  of 
a  plant  cell  are  usually:  l.  The  proto- 
plasm, or  living  part  of  the  cell.  2. 
The  vacuoles,  cavities  in  the  proto- 
j)lasm,  full  of  water  and  substances 
dissolved  in  the  water.  3.  The  cell 
wall,  a  hard  substance,  inclosing  the 
protoplasm.  Cells  of  animals  have  no 
wall,  or  else  one  not  made  of  cellulose. 

Conservation.    Saving  up;    keeping. 

Epidermis.  A  single  layer  of  cells,  cov- 
ering every  part  t)f  the  plant  except  the 
root  cap. 

Export.  To  send  for  sale  or  exchange 
to  other  countries  or  places.  The  ex- 
ports of  a  country  or  place  are  the 
things  sent  out  of  it.  The  things 
brought  in  are  inij>orts. 

Flower.  .V  flower  is  the  end  of  a  shoot 
or  branch,  which  has  given  up  the 
vegetative  function  and  become  spe- 
cialized as  a  reproiiuctive  structure. 
Its  parts  are  the  end  of  the  stem,  called 
the  receptacle,  and,  if  the  flower  is 
complete,  four  kinds  of  leaves:  — 


KS7 


1 88 


GLOSSARY 


Sepals.  These  are  the  outermost.  They 
are  usually  green  in  color,  but  small. 
All  together,  they  make  up  the  calyx. 

Petals.  These  are  inside  the  calyx.  They 
are  usually  larger  than  the  sepals  and 
showy  in  form  or  color.  The  petals 
make  up  the  corolla. 

Stamens.  These  are  borne  in  or  upon  the 
corolla.  Each  stamen  is  made  up  of  a 
slender  stalk,  called  the  filament,  and 
an  enlarged  end,  usually  yellow,  called 
the  anther.  The  anther  is  full  of  a  fine 
powder  called  pollen. 

Carpels.  These  are  the  central  leaves  of 
the  flower,  but  usually  do  not  look  at 
all  like  leaves.  A  flower  may  have  one 
or  more  of  them.  Any  one  carpel  not 
united  with  others,  or  a  union  of  several 
of  them,  makes  a  pistil.  A  flower  of 
most  kinds  of  plants  has  but  one  pistil; 
but  a  few  kinds,  as  the  ilangilang  and 
atis,  have  many.  The  parts  of  the  pistil 
are:  i.  The  enlarged,  hollow,  basal 
part,  the  ovary,  which  contains  ovules. 
2.  The  upper  part,  the  stigma,  on 
which  the  pollen  must  fall  and  germi- 
nate. 3.  The  style,  which  connects 
the  ovary  and  stigma.  Some  flowers 
have  no  style.  Pistillate  flowers  con- 
tain pistils  but 'no  stamens.  Staminate 
flowers  have  stamens,  but  no  pistils. 
Flowers  with  both  stamens  and  pistils 
are  perfect. 

Germination.  The  beginning  to  grow  of 
a  seed  or  spore. 

Hybrid.  A  plant  or  animal  whose  parents 
are  of  different  kinds.  The  mule  is  a 
hybrid  between  the  horse  and  the 
ass. 


Induction  coil.  An  apparatus  for  produc- 
ing electric  currents  by  induction.  In- 
duction is  the  causing  of  a  current  in 

.  one  body  by  a  current  in  another  body, 
when  the  two  bodies  are  not  in  contact. 
In  induction  coils  the  wires  are  usually 
wound  with  silk,  to  keep  them  from 
touching  each  other. 

Inflorescence.  A  collection  of  flowers 
growing  on  a  special  part  of  a  plant. 
All  the  flowers  on  an  ear  of  maize,  or 
at  the  top  of  one  stem  of  tobacco  or 
rice,  make  up  an  inflorescence. 

Internal  revenue.  All  the  revenue  or 
income  of  a  country,  except  that  col- 
lected by  taxes  on  exports  or  im- 
ports. 

Litmus  paper.  Paper  treated  with  a  sub- 
stance which  makes  it  blue  when  alka- 
line, but  red  when  acid.  An  acid  is  a 
sour  substanccj  such  as  vinegar.  Lime 
and  ashes  are  alkaline. 

Node.  The  part  of  a  stem  where  leaves 
and  branches  are  borne. 

Panicle.     A   branched   inflorescence,    in 

which  the  lower  flowers  blossom  before 

those  at  the  top. 
Parasite.   Any  living   thing  which   gets 

its  food  from   some    other   living  (not 

dead)  thing. 
Petal.    See  Flower. 
Petiole.    The   part  of  the  leaf  which  is 

stem-like.     A  leaf  without  a  petiole  is 

sessile. 
Pistil.    See  Flower. 
Pollen.    See  Flower. 
Propagation.   See  Reprodtictio7t. 
Proteids.    Food     substances    which    are 


GLOSSARY 


189 


very  complicated  and  contain  nitrogen. 
The  white  of  eggs  is  a  proteid. 
Protoplasm.   See  Cell. 

Reproduction.  The  process  by  which  liv- 
ing things  that  already  exist  produce 
or  bear  new  living  things  of  the  same 
kinds.-  When  reproduction  increases 
the  number,  or  produces  the  offspring 
in  new  places,  it  is  often  called  propa- 
gation. 

Sepal.    See  Flower. 

Spore.  A  reprotluctive  structure,  usually 
made  up  of  a  single  cell.  Spores  are 
very  much  smaller  than  seeds.  The 
fungi,  seaweeds,  mosses,  and  ferns  are 
propagated  by  means  of  spores,  instead 
of  seeds. 


Stamen.   See  Floiuer. 

Sterilize.  To  make  anything  sterile,  so 
that  nothing  will  grow  in  it.  The  soil, 
or  any  other  substance,  is  sterilized 
when  the  seeds,  spores,  and  other  living 
things  in  it  are  killed. 

Stigma.   See  J-lmver. 

Style.    See  Fl<nver. 

Subsoil.  A  layer  of  the  earth  often 
found  under  the  real  soil,  but  above  the 
rock.  The  most  important  character 
of  most  subsoils  is  their  permitting,  or 
not  permitting,  the  passage  of  water. 

Vegetative  parts  of  plants.  Those  parts 
whose  function  is  to  build  up  the  indi- 
vidual plant,  not  to  produce  its  off- 
spring. 


INDEX 


Abaca,  133-143;  effect  of 
cultivation,  42;  effect  of 
shading,  3^- 

Agave,  144. 

Agriculture,  i. 

Alluvial  soil,  19. 

Altitude,  51. 

Ampalaya,  74. 

Ananassa,  146. 

Anona,  185. 

Anther,  187. 

Ants,  65. 

Arachis,  77. 

Arid  land,  uses,  43. 

Arrowroot,  88. 

Arsenic,  56. 

Ashes,  28. 

Bacteria,  53,  187. 
Bagasse,  120. 
Banana,  173-176. 
Batangas,  coffee,  162. 
Batao,  77. 
Beans,  76. 
Beet,  69. 
Blue  vitriol,  59. 
Bordeaux  mixture,  59. 
Bow-string  hemp,   149. 
Bract,  187. 
Breadfruit,  186. 
Buhac,  57. 

Cabbage,  72. 
Cacao,  168-172. 
Cagyos,  77. 
Caingin  system,  30. 
Cajanus,  77. 
Calcium,  27,  187. 
Camagon,  184. 
Camoting  cahoy,  82-86. 
Canal,  irrigating,  45. 
Cane,  sugar,  11 2-1 21. 
Capsule,  187. 
Carbon,  25. 


Carbon  dioxid,  32,  187. 

Carica  papaya,  176. 

Carrot,  69,  70. 

Cassava,  82-86. 

Cell,  187. 

Chico,  186. 

Chico  mamey,  186. 

Chlorophyll,  4,  32. 

Cincomas,  70,  76. 

Citrus,  177-180. 

Clay,  22;   dries  badly,  42. 

Climate,  46-52. 

Coconut,  122-132;  dis- 
tance between  plants, 
34;  numerous  roots, 
39;     seed,    12;     beetle, 

54- 
Cocos  nucifera,  122. 
Coffea,  160. 
Coffee,     160-167;     insect 

enemies    of,    54;     rust, 

58-60,  164,  167. 
Coir,  123,  132. 
Colocasia,  68. 
Conservation,  187. 
Copper  sulphate,  50-60. 
Copra,  123,  132. 
Corn,  90. 
Cotton,  148. 
Cotyledons,  8,  12. 
Cucumber,  73,  75. 
Cultivation,  effect  on  soil 

water,  41,  42;    to  drive 

away  ants,  65;    to  dry 

the  soil,  63. 
Curing  tobacco,  154,  159. 

Dapdap,  139. 
Dicotyledons,  12. 
Dioscorea,  68. 
Diospyros,  184. 
Diseases  of  plants,  53. 
Drainage,  38. 
Drill,  loi;    rice,  109,  no. 

190 


Drought,  effect  on  coco- 
nut, 128;  effect  on 
maguey,  143-  • 

Dry  seasons,  where  likely, 

5°- 
Durian,  183. 

Eggplant,  80. 

Elements,    chemical,    24- 

27. 
Embryo,  10. 
Endosperm,  11. 
Epidermis,  187. 
Export,  187. 

Fertilizers,  27-30,  64. 

Fiber  plants,  133-149. 

Flower,  10,  187;  of  maize, 
91. 

Fodder,  maize,  94-101 ; 
peanut,  77. 

Frost,  47. 

Fruit,  15,  173-186;  gar- 
den, 79-81. 

Fungi,  5,  58-60. 

Gabi,  68. 
Garden,   69-81. 
Germination,  188. 
Glucose,  119. 
Gossypium,  148. 
Gourd,  73. 

Grafting,  mango,  181, 182. 
Grafting  wax,  181. 
Green  manures,  29. 
Guano,  28. 
Guava,  184. 

Hairs,  on  tobacco  leaves, 

ISO- 
Hemp,  Manila.  See  Abaca. 
Hills,   of  maize,    100;    of 

squashes,  73. 
Humus,  20. 


INDEX 


191 


Hybrid,  188. 
Hydrogen,  25,  26,  35. 

Inarching,  181. 
Indigo,  79. 
Induction  coil,  188. 
Inflorescence,  188. 
Insects,  53-58. 
Internal  revenue,  188. 
Ipomoca,  67. 
Iron,  25,  26;   and  toljacco, 

155- 
Irrigation,       43-45;        of 

cane,  118. 
Isalx-ia,  tobacco,  153. 

Japanese  rice,  104. 
Java,  rice  prtxluction,  105. 
Jute,  149. 

Kapok,  149. 

Kerosene    emulsion,     57; 

to  kill   insects,    56;     to 

protect  seed,  65. 

Lanson,  184. 

Leaf,  parts  of,  9. 

lA'af  crops,  71,  72. 

lA-gume  family,  29,  75-79. 

Lemon,  177. 

Lettuce,  73;  elTect  of  cul- 
tivation, 41. 

Liljerian  cotTee,  163. 

Light,  32-34;  amount  at 
Para  and  Kew,  47. 

Lime,  fruit,  177. 

Lime,  and  tobacco,  154; 
in  Bordeaux  mi.Kture, 
60.     See  Calcium. 

Lipa,  colTee,  162. 

Litmus  pajjer,  i88. 

Loam,  22. 

IxKusts,  55. 

LCK'SS,   18. 

Mabolo,  184. 
Madrecacao,  139. 
Magnesium,  25. 
Maguey,  143-146. 
Maize,      90-102;      insect 

enemies     of,     54,     56; 

smut,  58. 


Mangifera,    180. 
Mango,  180-182. 
Mangosteen,  182. 
Mani,  77,  78. 
Manihot,  82. 
Maniok,  82-86. 
Manure,      for      fertilizer, 

28. 
Melons,  73,  75. 
Metamorphosis  of  inset  ts, 

54- 
Micropyle,  11,  13. 
Mindanao,  colTee,    163. 
Mineral     fotxl,    dissolved 

in  water,  36. 
Moisture,  a  factor  of  di- 

mate,  46. 
Mold,  20. 

MoncKotyledons,  12. 
Mulch,  42. 
Mungo,  76. 
Musa,  133. 
Musa  textilis,  133. 
Mushr<M)ms,  5. 
Mustard,  71. 

Name    (Philippine   vam), 

68. 
Names,  of  plants,  6. 
Nicotiana,  150. 
Nicotine,  151. 
Night-flying  insects,    56. 
Nitrogen,  28,  29;  used  by 

maniok,  84. 
Node,  188. 
Ntxlules,      on      r(M)ts     of 

legumes,  76. 

Okra,  79. 
Onion,  70. 
Orange,  177-180. 
Orchard,  61. 
Origin,  of  soil,  16   18. 
Oryza,  103. 
Ovary,  10. 
Ovule,  10. 
Oxygen,  25. 

Palms,  122. 

Pangasinan,    riie   prinlut - 
tion,  105. 


Panicle,  188. 

Papaya,  176,  177. 

Paper,  abaca,  135. 

Pa{x;r  materials,  142. 

Pacjuit,  68. 

Parasite,  188. 

Paris  green,  56. 

Parsnip,  70. 

Paths,  in  garden,  63. 

Pea,  76. 

Peanut,  77-79. 

Pe  chai,  72. 

Pepper,  81. 

Persian  insect  powder,  57. 

Petiole,  188. 

Phaseolus,  6. 

Phosphorus,  25,  28. 

Pineapple,   146-148. 

Pistil,  188. 

Plants,  3-10;    f(xxl  of,  3, 

24-31;    parts  of,  8. 
Plumule,  :  i,  13. 
Pollen,  188;   of  maize,  92. 
Pomelo,  177,  178. 
Potassium,  25. 
Potato,  86,  87. 
Propagation,    1S8. 
Proteids,  76. 
Protoplasm,  189. 
Prussic  acid,  83. 
Pumps,  for  irrigation,  43. 

Kadic  !e,  11,  13. 

Radish,  70. 

Rainfall,  and  altitude,  51; 

in  Philippines,  48. 
Ramie,  149. 
Rattan,  149. 
ReprcMluction,  189. 
Residual  soil,  18. 
Rhizome,  88. 
Rice,  103- 1 1 1. 
Rix)t,  8, "39. 
R(K)t  crops,  66-70. 
R(K>t  hairs,  39. 
Rotation  of  crops,  31. 

Sail  harum,  1 13. 
Sand,  21. 
Santol,  I  S3. 
Seaweeds,  v. 


192 


INDEX 


Seed,  lo,  11-15;  ofabac^, 

139- 

Seed  beds,  65,  66. 

Seed  coats,  11,  13. 

Selection  of  seed,  of  coco- 
nut, 129;    of  maize,  97. 

Shade,    33;     and    abaca, 

139- 

Shade  trees,  33,  139. 

Shoot,  9. 

Silk-cotton  tree,  149. 

Sinamay,  134. 

Sisal,  144. 

Sitao,  77. 

Soil,  16-23;  cultivation 
for  maize,  98;  in  gar- 
den, 63,  64. 

Solanum,  86. 

Sour  sop,  185. 

Spore,  189;    of  fungi,  58. 

Squashes,  73-75. 

Squash,  seed,  13. 

Stamens,  189. 

Starch,  32,  82-89;  in 
banana,  176;  manu- 
facture,  85;    rice,    106. 

Starch  plants,  82-89. 

Stem,  9. 

Sterilize,  189. 

Stigma,  189. 


Storage,  of  mango,  182. 

Stripping  abaca,  141. 

Structure  of  soil,  21-23. 

Style,  189;    of  maize,  92. 

Subsoil,  189. 

Sugar,  32;  cane,  11 2-1 21. 

Sulphur,  25. 

Sumatra     tobacco,      155, 

156. 
Sweet  potato,  67. 
Sweet  sop,  185. 

Talahib,  113. 

Talong,  80. 

Tapioca,  86. 

Taro,  68. 

Tax,  on  tobacco,  152. 

Tegmen,  11,  13. 

Temperature,  in  Philip- 
pines, 46;  of  coconut 
leaf,  126. 

Testa,  II,  13. 

Texas,  rice  cultivation, 
109. 

Threshing  machine,    iii. 

Tobacco,  150-159;  need 
of  shade,  34;  used  in 
fighting  insects,  56. 

Tomato,  80. 

Tools,  64. 


Transpiration,  36. 
Transpiration  stream,  36. 
Transplanting,    40;     rice, 

108. 
Tuba,  123. 
Tuber,  86. 
Tugui,  68. 
Turnip,  70. 

Ubi,  68. 
Upo,  74. 

Vacuoles,  35. 
Vegetative  parts  of  plants, 
189. 

Water,  35-45;  about  soil 
particles,  38,  41 ;  in 
beach  soil,  127;  in  soil, 
22,  63;    movement,  42. 

Weather  and  formation  of 
soil,  17. 

Weeds,  34. 

Wild  rice,  104. 

Windmills,  43. 

Worms,  causing  disease, 
53- 

Yam,  68. 
Zea,  90. 


3  1158  00448  6758 


UC  SOUTHERN  REGIONAL  UBRARY  FACILITY 

l|ii||i|iiiiffirii|ini|fiiiiiilil|ilir 


A    001  131  141     2 


SOUTHERN  BRANCH, 

AKFORNIA 


